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A SHORTER COURSE 
IN WOODWORKING 

•■^■■■■■••■•■BBam 

A PRACTICAL MANUAL FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 



CHARLES G. WHEELER 




Class T^T^l30 

Book // y-^ $ 

Copyright W _, 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSm 



BY CHARLES G. WHEELER, B.S, 



Woodworking for Beginners 

A Manual for Amateurs 

A Shorter Course in Woodworking 

A Practical Manual for Home and School 



A SHORTER COURSE IN 
WOODWORKING 

A Practical Manual for Home and School 



BY 

CHARLES G. WHEELER 

AUTHOR OF "WOODWORKING FOR BEGINNERS" 



WITH 765 ILLUSTRATIONS 



G. P. Putnam's Sons 

New York and London 

Ubc Icnicfterbocfter press 

1911 



,«^ 



Copyright, 191 i 

BY 

CHARLES G. WHEELER 



■0/ 

-X 



TTbe 1m(cbecboclter press, "Rew ]Socfe 



CCI.A289332 



PKEFACE 

Teachers, parents, business men, and mechanics are demanding 
that the training of youth be more practical. A satisfactory system 
must meet the demands of the pupil or the individual student, that 
his interest and enthusiasm may be so aroused as to call forth his 
best efforts; of the educator, that the subject may be presented to the 
pupil in the way best for his general development; of the mechanic, 
that the most practical methods may be adopted ; and of the business 
man that the pupils be trained in up-to-date methods and modern 
ways of thinking. 

This book is not meant to conflict with courses in woodworking 
now in use, but rather to fit in with any system ; for the approved 
methods of work — the result of the experience of generations of 
workmen — should be known to all teachers, pupils, and individual 
students. 

No set course of procedure can be adopted by all, nor is there any 
necessarily logical order in which many of the tools and operations 
must be taken up, although some are naturally brought into use 
before others. Therefore the material in this book is so arranged 
that it can be used in any order, and any desired topic can be referred 
to readily. 

When class exercises are begun with oral and manual demonstra- 
tions many pupils do not readily grasp and assimilate the new ideas, 
technical terms, and details during one demonstration by the teacher, 
and it is believed that a general manual which can be used as a text- 
book and reference-book will be helpful and time-saving to both teacher 
and pupil. 

Manual training, from a pedagogical point of view, is a com- 



iv Preface 

paratively new subject. Therefore many teachers of woodworking 
naturally belong to one of two classes at present. First, pro- 
fessional teachers who have studied the subject with reference to 
teaching, and, second, skilled mechanics who have taken up the work 
of instructing. It is natural and inevitable that many of the first 
class should be more or less lacking in practical knowledge and breadth 
of woodworking experience, and that those of the second class should 
lack the knowledge, training, and experience of the teacher. It is 
hoped that this book may be of help to both classes and also of use 
to the independent student. 

A number of what may be called typical models are given — 
simple examples of various classes of work. These are to show the 
approved methods of construction, and the principles are applicable 
to many similar articles. 

The aim of the systems of work used in schools ranges all the 
way from the general development of the pupil's faculties to turning 
out trained workmen. Each of these systems has its place, but in 
the matter of using the modern machinery there is some disagreement 
between the methods of many schools and those of the work-shop. 
The day. has passed for the old-fashioned all-round mechanic who was 
a hand-workman only. The day for the modern narrow specialist 
who is but a cog in a machine is passing away. The mechanic of the 
future must not only be an all-round hand-worker but he must also 
imderstand and use the machines of his line of work. He will be 
broader and better-developed than those of either of the other two 
classes. This fact seems to be overlooked by some who advocate 
an almost interminable course of hand- work alone, on the ground 
that it is best for the general development of the pupil. Often he is 
kept using tools for their educative value which the mechanic never 
uses unless obliged. For example, no practical workman would think 
of using a bow-saw for anything which could be done by a band-saw 
or jig-saw, while the pupil is kept at work with this almost obsolete 
tool, long after he has learned from it all that is worth while. On 
the other hand the extremists who wotild have nothing done by hand 



Preface v 

which can be done by machine would cause the pupil to miss the 
great development and training (physical, mental, and moral) which 
undoubtedly comes from varied and continued hand-work. 

Machinery is of course unsafe for small children, and it is 
good practice for hand and eye to use the bow-saw, for example, 
therefore the pupil should learn the use of this tool, but having mas- 
tered it reasonably well he should not be obliged to use it longer. If 
old enough he should be taught the use of the band-saw (or the jig- 
saw), for machinery has its educative value as well as hand-work. 
If too young to be trusted with machinery the sawing should be 
done for him. If power-machines are out of the question, excellent 
ones to be run by foot (or hand) can be bought for a small sum. 
Also, for another example, after the pupil has acquired the skill to 
plane down siu-faces accurately, it is a great waste of time, and is dis- 
couraging, for him to continue to do work which shoiild be done by 
machinery. 

Looked at from an artistic and sentimental point of view there 
is something about hand-work — the personal equation — which no 
machine can supply, but from a purely mechanical point of view 
it is idle to claim, as is frequently done, that hand-work is necessarily 
superior to thoroughly executed machine- work. Two men cannot 
scrape a board in a day so accurately and smoothly as a first-class 
scraping-machine can do it in fifteen seconds. We may prefer the hand- 
scraped table for its human touch, but mechanically it is inferior 
to that scraped by machine. In most so-called hand-work of the 
present day machinery is largely used to save time, labor, and ex- 
pense. It is a mistaken view to scorn the help of machinery. The 
advantages of hand-work need not be sacrificed, but the position of 
machinery must be recognized, for it has come to stay and the age de- 
mands it. The time saved by the help of machinery will enable him 
who has hand-work, or general development, alone in view to advance 
to more difficult problems in hand-work, instead of being held back 
by doing over and over again what he has once learned. 

The way which seems the most logical and to promise the best 



VI 



Preface 



all-round results, whether the final aim be general development or 
special technical training, is to follow the natural process of evolution. 
That is, give the pupil a good thorough course in the essentials of 
hand-work. When he has acquired a reasonable degree of skill with 
any tools and processes now obsolete in practical work, let such work 
thereafter be done by machine. There will still be enough hand 
operations left to test to the utmost the skill of the most brilliant 
pupil or instructor. It is partly a question of time-saving. The 
question is not whether the pupil is well employed or not, but whether 
his time is being used in the best way and so as to save as much as 
possible for further advancement. 

The maker of a manual on the subject of woodworking is in danger 
of saying too much or too little. If he is not explicit enough the 
pupil is hindered from lack of sufficient data. If he explains matters 
which should be learned by observation, experience, investigation, 
and experiment or which should be left to the intelligence and 
common-sense of teacher and pupil, he retards the student instead 
of developing his faculties. The effort has therefore been made to 
give the necessary facts and no more, that each teacher may be free 
to arrange his methods of procedure according to his circumstances, 
and that the pupil may have a chance to work out his own salvation. 

It is wished to keep this book up to date, therefore notification of 
errors and omissions, or any suggestions, sent the author under care 
of the publishers, will be gratefully received. 

C. G. W. 



TO TEACHERS 

The teacher of woodworking is often looked upon as one who 
need only be proficient in the practical execution of woodwork. 
But to get the best results he must have as good pedagogical train- 
ing as other teachers, and to this he must add practical knowledge of 
the work itself. In fact it is doubtless better that he be a teacher 
first and a mechanic afterward, than that he be a mechanic first and 
a teacher afterward. But nothing less than a happy combination 
of excellence in both respects will do full justice to the pupils. 

The wise teacher of woodworking, as of many other studies, will 
not tell the pupil what he can learn better by observation and ex- 
perience. The pupil enjoys finding things out for himself, and what 
he learns by experience he remembers. As a practical matter, 
however, there are many things which, as time is limited, had best 
be told or shown. Nor will the judicious teacher yield to the temp- 
tation to help in the actual work. The pupils should never learn to 
rely upon him to do any of their work for them. 

The tools must be sharp and in good condition. It is useless to 
expect satisfactory results with dull tools. The wood should be 
clear, dry, straight-grained stock. The novice cannot be expected to 
do good work with anything else. The benches and all of the equip- 
ment should be kept in good working order. 

To be sure that the pupil has a clear idea of the work he is about 
to do before he begins the teacher must first understand it himself, 
and it is easy to be over-confident in this respect. In elementary 
work make every article yourself before giving it to a pupil to make, 
unless you are an experienced mechanic, and it is a wise thing to do 
even then. It is astonishing what unforeseen difficulties or objec- 

vii ^ 



viii To Teachers 

tionable features sometimes develop in the process of making simple 
objects, and the teacher should not get caught by difficulties which 
the experienced workman would foresee. Besides, the pupils are as 
quick to discover the limitations of the teacher's knowledge in wood- 
working as in other branches. By this it is not meant that the 
teacher must be an experienced workman in order to do useful work 
as an instructor — for to teach some woodworking it is not necessary 
to know all woodworking — but he should not fail to understand all 
the details of every problem which he knows to be before him. 

The beginner should at the outset learn the construction, adjust- 
ment, and management of every tool, as it is harder to do this after 
his interest has become centred on the actual work. Similarly, 
unless the pupil be held to a good standard of execution in the early 
work, it will be difficult to do so in the more advanced articles. In 
woodwork, as in drawing and other branches, the sense of acciiracy 
is in many cases very defective, but usually can be gradually developed 
until the pupil can see for himself inaccioracies which at first he could 
not see even when pointed out. On the other hand there is danger 
in striving for too minute exactitude with some pupils, to the exclu- 
sion of other matters, lest they never have time to learn anything 
else. 

It is easy for a teacher to become so absorbed in a set of models 
as to think the reproduction of them by all the pupils to be the end 
and aim of manual training, forgetting, in his zeal for the routine 
of the work, that the pupil has brains to be ciiltivated, as well as hands 
and eyes. Originality and spontaneous effort should be encouraged, 
and the power developed to overcome difficulties other than those of 
mere manual dexterity. Manual dexterity often requires but little 
brain power beyond the faculty of attention to the work in hand. 
After a time, as the pupil begins to acquire skill, certain movements 
and operations become more or less automatic and cease to require 
the higher order of faculties. Therefore he should then have 
projects which require more than mere attention, — something men- 
tally stimulating. If all his work is carefully laid out for him and 



To Teachers ix 

all his thinking done for him in advance, he is losing perhaps the most 
important part of his training. Thus there is danger that he may 
acquire a good degree of manual skill without the power to apply it 
usefully to the purposes of everyday life. Therefore in zeal for de- 
tails and for turning out an accurate set of "models" the teacher 
should not lose sight of the broader aspects of the subject. 

If a pupil spoils a piece of work do not feel that you must in every 
case keep him making the article over and over again, until it is 
satisfactory. This soon becomes very discouraging and should not 
be done too often, but he should be allowed to advance to some new 
problem by which the desired end can be reached. 

The prevailing opinion seems to be that the best method for 
elementary work is to have the pupils make a progressive series of 
useful articles. Besides this, the objects should be such as to arouse 
each pupil's interest, and touch so far as possible his life and the things 
which naturally appeal to him and the things which are suitable 
to the community. The teacher is, or should be, looking at the pupil's 
ultimate benefit, but the pupil (unless quite matiire) is looking at the 
object he is making as the end in view. He may understand and 
appreciate the purpose of his schooling, but the direct interest of 
a young pupil is more in the article he is making than in the training 
he is getting, and without his interest and enthusiasm a full measure 
of success will never be attained. 

In real hfe woodworking is done for some definite end. Things are 
made because they are wanted, — because there is some reason for 
making them. In school they are often made with the idea that 
what is learned may be of some use later in life (what may be called 
disciplinary or preparatory work), but the work in a school shop 
should be real work, — a part of real life, not merely a preparation for 
what may or may not come later. The pupils are *as much a part of 
life now as they ever will be, and what young pupils are interested in 
is life now and not in preparations for the future. Their tasks should 
be so far as possible a part of home or school or outside life. There 
should be some definite usefiil and present purpose in all their work. 



X To Teachers 

Let the teacher who doubts this try giving his pupils work which 
appeals to them and work which does not, and he will soon learn the 
difference. There is as much educative discipline in work which is a 
part of the pupil's present life as in that in which he can take but 
little interest. As he grows older and becomes more proficient this 
problem of seeing that he has suitable work will take care of itself. 

The greatest difficulty in arranging a course of work for the be- 
ginner lies in the early stages, — in so introducing him to the work 
that he can have something suitable to do, — something worth while — 
and still use no more tools and operations at the same time than 
can be luiderstood readily or than can be kept track of by the in- 
structor. After the pupil has once learned the elementary uses of the 
common tools and the elementary operations, there is no further dif- 
ficulty in finding suitable work for him. In fact he will often pro- 
vide himself with a greater number of good projects than it is possible 
for him to execute. 

In regard to allowing pupils in their early work to choose what they 
shall make, it is well at first to let them select from but few carefully 
considered articles, giving them wider choice as they progress. The 
different groups from which they may be allowed to choose should, 
however, be thought out carefully, that the objects in each group may 
offer similar problems and difficulties, and the groups themselves 
be progressively arranged. Many pupils wish to make things which 
are too hard and would take too long to do properly. On the other 
hand do not feel that only short jobs should be undertaken. A com- 
paratively long piece of work about which the pupil has enthusiasm 
is better than a short one in which he takes no interest. The dis- 
cipline — the mental and moral training — which comes from sticking 
to work and working hard at it until it is as well done as can be ex- 
pected is lost if only quickly executed work is undertaken. Therefore, 
when the pupil's proficiency and mental development will allow, let 
him have the experience and satisfaction of undertaking and success- 
fully carrying out work which when finished will be of real value 
and a source of pride to all concerned. 



To Teachers xi 

It is important to remember that a well-trained eye is a valuable 
possession. Therefore have the work tested by eye so far as possible 
before using instruments, and in the elementary work avoid mechanical 
appliances and make the pupil rely on hand and eye and the common 
hand tools. Time-saving and acciu"acy-securing devices should not 
be introduced until the worker has attained a reasonable degree of 
skill without them. 

After the pupils have become fairly proficient in the use of the 
common tools, group-work can sometimes be used to good advantage, 
provided no pupil is kept too long at any one operation. Objects 
which give valuable lessons in construction — a side of the work often 
much neglected — can frequently be made by a number of pupils 
which it would be impracticable for one to make alone. 

The student should be shown different ways of doing work, as it 
cultivates versatility, adaptability, and resourcefulness. If everything 
desirable is not available to meet a particular situation, do not give 
the work up, but encourage the pupil to contrive some way to reach 
the desired end. The path will not be hewed for him in real life. 
Let his real life begin in the school. Do not keep him too closely to 
a set course of procedure. Let him, within reasonable limits, propose, 
design, and make articles in which he is interested. 

Whenever connection can be made between the woodworking 
and the regular school work this should be done. Comparing notes 
and interchange of ideas on the part of the different teachers may show 
ways in which the work can be so correlated as to be helpful and 
stimulating to the different departments. If a pupil can try to work 
out in the art department the best design for something which is to 
be made in the shop, the advantage is too obvious to be neglected. 
Also, whenever the pupils can use the shop as a laboratory for the 
working out of any problems or the construction of apparatus for 
scientific studies it is for the advantage of both departments to do so. 

If some project involves the use of other materials than wood 
do not reject it on that account, if otherwise desirable. A little 
simple auxiliary work in metals, leather, etc., does not interfere with 



xii To Teachers 

the success of the woodworking, but is often a stimulus, and the 
relation of the different branches of mechanical work is better 
understood. 

The practical work should not be sacrificed for such correlative 
topics as forestry, lumbering, the growth of trees, their distribution, 
leaves, etc. Such subjects can be taken up at any time of life, and 
information about them is accessible to all, but if the best period 
of life for the manual training proper is once past it cannot easily 
be recalled. If the time will admit it is of course well to take up the 
most important of such topics. It is well to have on hand models of 
joints and the like, as thereby much time is saved. After the most 
elementary stages different kinds of wood should be used. It is a good 
plan to have catalogues of tools (these will usually be supplied by the 
dealers) accessible to the pupils, to increase their interest and give 
useful information. 

Much difficulty is often found in keeping a large class together 
in the elementary exercises. Supplementary or extra work for the 
quicker pupils may perhaps answer the requirements of discipline — 
may keep the class out of mischief — but from an educational point 
of view such a method is so crude, and so unfair to those who show 
the most aptitude and are therefore required to "mark time," that 
it is hard to justify it on any higher ground than that of expediency. 
It is certainly doubtful if there be any satisfactory way to keep pupils 
together in large classes, nor is it desirable to do so except for the 
difficulty of handling so many individually. Of course each pupil 
should be free to advance as fast as he can, but if the classes are large 
it is physically and mentally impossible for the teacher to handle 
the pupils individually in the early stages of the work, and he has 
no alternative but to try to keep them together as well as he can. 
Classes should not be too large to allow every pupil to have the in- 
dividual attention of the teacher. But this is a subject about which, 
unfortunately, the teacher is usually not consulted. 

The excessive haste of many pupils is a great hindrance to good 
work. Sometimes advice and reasoning will soon effect a slowing 



To Teachers xiii 

down ; and repeated failures, and incidentally the waste of considerable 
material, with watchfulness and patience on the part of the teacher, 
will often bring about a great improvement. This is a hard problem 
for the conscientious teacher, but he should apply to it careful thought, 
with study of the individual characteristics, for often some of the 
most intelligent and industrious workers are afflicted with this trouble 
in an acute form. 

Where machinery is used the teacher who has had extended ex- 
perience with it will not need to be cautioned about the dangers 
to which the novice may be exposed — and no one should take charge 
of such work without sufficient experience — but too much stress can 
hardly be laid upon insisting that nothing be allowed to distract the 
attention of any one while working at a machine. All belting, shafting, 
and gearing with which one can come in contact should be protected, 
and care should be taken that no pupils work with dangling sleeves 
or any exposed loose ends of clothing. If the workshop is not sup- 
plied with machinery, the pupils should be taken, when sufficiently 
advanced, to a mill and the machines and their uses studied. 
Rolls of bandages, antiseptic gauze, absorbent cotton, adhesive 
plaster, and some antiseptic and healing preparations for cuts and 
bruises should always be on hand, within reach of all, whether ma- 
chinery is used or not. Pupils should be cautioned not to put glue 
on a cut, because of possible infection. In case of a bruise or pound- 
ing the nail put the finger at once in as hot water as can be borne. 

The teacher of woodworking, dealing as he does with tangible 
materials and the creation of objects, has constant opportunity to 
inculcate the virtues of honesty and thoroughness in work. Also, 
because of the practical nature of the subject, he has a fine oppor- 
tunity to encourage the pupils, by his interest in what interests them, 
to talk over with him not merely the projects of the school shop but 
the outside private mechanical work which so many of them are sure 
to undertake. He need have no fear that such efforts will not be 
appreciated, and he may thereby often learn something useful himself. 

To attempt to specify the attainments of the ideal manual training 



xiv To Teachers 

teacher does not come within the province of this book, but it will 
bear reiteration that it is even more important for him to be a good 
teacher than to be a good mechanic. While he must read^ study, 
experiment, and keep up to the times in woodworking, he must also 
be keenly alive to pedagogical progress and to outside interests. 

While the position and authority of the teacher must be main- 
tained with proper dignity and kindly firmness, it is not well to try 
to exact all the conventional requirements of the ordinary school- 
room, for much freedom of movement, and mental liberty also, is 
necessary. The successful carrying out of his work is sure to resiilt 
in much self-government and self-discipline on the part of the pupil. 
Occasional acts of thoughtlessness or forgetfulness are hard to prevent 
in any collection of youth, and there may be times when "discipline" 
must be resorted to, but if the teacher finds the need of much of it 
in his classes, he shoiild ask himself wherein he has failed to arouse and 
hold the interest of his pupils. If the teacher does his part as it 
should be done, there will be little occasion for government, for the 
pupils will have no desire for mischief, but will be eagerly and zealously 
attending to business. 



CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Preface ........... iii 

To Teachers .......... vii 

Introductory .......... i 

PART I. — Common Tools and Their Uses .... 6 
Tools for laying out and testing work. — Saws. — Chisels. — 
Planes. — Boring tools. — Other cutting tools. — Tools for pvitting 
work together. — Miscellaneous tools and appliances. — Wood- 
working machines. 

PART II. — Operations in Shaping, Fitting, and Finishing Wood 139 

Appendix ........... 201 

Wood. — A few elementary principles of construction. — Some 
practical problems in drawing and laying out work. Some 
types of construction. 

Index ........... 275 



A SHORTER COURSE IN 
WOODWORKING 



INTKODUCTORY 

1. The Process. — Before any complete article can properly be 
made in woodworking, one must learn its construction, what mate- 
rials are to be used, and what tools are needed and how to use 
them. 

First, the shape, size, and all the details of the object should be 
decided upon and understood, and a working drawing with dimensions 
be made,' (See page 217.) 

Second, the most suitable materials must be decided upon, — the 
kind of wood, hardware, and other things necessary. ^ 

Next, the material must be selected and the "stock" got out. 
To do this the dimensions must be measured and the outlines of the 
piece or pieces marked out on the wood. Usually these are got out 
a little too large with saws or other tools and afterwards reduced 
by planing and other operations to the exact required dimensions. 

Finally, the various pieces must be fitted together in accordance- 
with the plan, and the whole smoothed and finished. 

2. Estimating, Laying out Work, and Getting out Stock. — An 

• Whether this drawing should be made by the pupil or be provided for him must depend 
upon the circumstances and the nature of the work, but he should have a drawing to work 
£rom in every case. 

2 Sometimes it is necessary to do this, wholly or partly, before making the working 
drawings. 



2 A Shorter Course in Woodworking 

estimate of materials and cost should be made before beginning any 
but the simplest work. Make liberal allowance for waste which 
varies with every job and can rarely be foretold exactly. The be- 
ginner should have thoroughly seasoned, clear, straight-grained, dry 
stock. (See page 201.) 

The unit of lumber measurement is the "board foot," or "square 
foot," which means a volume one foot square and one inch thick. 
This contains 144 cubic inches, and any piece of wood containing 144 
cubic inches is a board foot, without regard to its shape. Most lumber 
is sold by the square foot, the price being set by the M (1000 feet). 
Thus, if pine boards are selling at $100 an M, one foot will cost ten 
cents. 

A board i" thick, 12" wide, and 12' long^ contains 12 feet, board 
measure, or 12 square feet. A board i" thick, 6" wide, and 12' long con- 
tains 6 square feet. Thus to measure twelve-foot stock simply find the 
width in inches. If the board tapers, measure at the middle. In case 
of a plank ^ multiply the width in inches by the thickness of the plank. 
A plank 3" thick, 7" wide, and 12' long contains 21 square feet. This 
method is easily applied to pieces of which the length or width is a con- 
venient multiple or divisor of twelve. 

Boards less than one inch thick are usually sold by the square foot of 
surface, — the price varying according to the thickness, except where an 
inch board is planed down, when, of course, inch thickness is charged for. 
There is no distinction in measuring made between a rough board i " thick 
and a planed board |" thick, as they represent the same amount of lumber. 

Some rare woods are sold by the pound, as ebony, leopard- wood, etc. 
Pieces turned out in quantities for special uses, as strips, mouldings, etc., 
are often sold by the running foot. Certain regular sizes and shapes of 
lumber are sold by the hundred or by the piece. Shingles, clapboards, 
and laths come in bunches or bundles. For other matters relating to Wood, 
see page 20 1 . 

The first, or rough dimensions, for small work, should usually be, for 
the beginner, about one eighth of an inch greater in thickness than the 

' The symbol " means inches and ' means feet. 
' Planks are more than i " thick. 



Introductory 3 

final dimensions, about one quarter of an inch greater in width, and about 
one-half inch, or so, greater in length. 

A list, or lumber order, of all the pieces, arranged according to kinds 
of wood and dimensions, should be made out, so that they can be got 
out as systematically, quickly, and economically as possible. As different 
kinds of lumber, different thicknesses, etc., are usually kept in separate 
piles, state first the kind of wood, next the thickness, and then the width 
and length. 

Pine 



No. of Pieces 

2 pieces 
4 pieces 



3 pieces 



Thickness 




Width 




Length 


1" 

8 
2" 


X 
X 


12" 

8" 


X 
X 


4' 
2' 6" 


)AK 
If" 


X 


3" 


X 


i' 9" 



A list of hardware, — nails, hinges, screws, etc., can also be made. 

Make measurements and lines exact. Do not be satisfied with 
coming within an eighth of an inch. Cutting to a line does no good 
if the line is in the wrong place. Go over measurements a second time 
to be sure there is no mistake.^ Where 
there is chance for mistake in putting work 
together mark the pieces, to show their 
relative positions, with letters, figures, or 
other symbols (Fig. i), and it is also well 
to roughly mark the places for mortises, 
tenons, etc. In many kinds of work al- 
lowance must be made for expansion and 
contraction. (See page 211.) 

Lay out work from one edge or sur- 
face only, for you can rarely be sure 




n 



C 



Fig. I 



' In rough work, where many pieces of the same length are to be got out use the first 
as a measure for all the rest. 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking^ 



> Working Face 



Fig. 2 



that the edges or surfaces are exactly parallel. Select the best 
surface for the "face" and the best edge for the "joint-edge." 
Make a mark on each to avoid mistakes, and lay out the work from 

this side and edge only. A mark 

like a V as in Fig. 2 will designate 
both working-face and joint-edge. 
In some work the face side should be 
the side which shows, as the top of 
a table or the front side of a pictiire-f rame ; but the face sides of 
the legs of tables, chairs, etc., should be on the inside to ensure 
accurate joints with the rails and other parts. ^ (Fig. 687.) In the same 
way the joint-edges in such work as door-frames, etc., should be on 
the inside. It is essential that all working-faces and joint-edges 
should be planed true in all cases where joints are formed. 

Operations of the same kind should be done at the same time so 
far as possible. Lay out duplicate pieces together (Figs. 3 and 4) , mark 




Fig. 3 Fig. 4 

' If otherwise suitable, the concave side of a warped board is the best for the face side, 
because it is the best to plane first. (See page 165.) 



Introductory 5 

similar details, and do similar sawing, planing, boring, etc., at the 
same time. 

3. The Work-shop. — ^A work-shop should be well lighted and 
properly heated, and dry, lest the tools rust and the work be injured 
by dampness. The floor should be of wood. Concrete is bad in 
case of dropping tools, and the dust from it is objectionable. 

It is an advantage to have windows on all sides of the shop. In 
any case the worker when standing at his bench should face the light 
and have it also on his left so that it may fall properly on his work. 

Except for childish work the only advantage of double benches for 
school use is in saving space and expense. Each pupil should have 
his own individual bench. (See page 80.) 

Separate benches, which may be of a cheaper quality, should 
be provided for finishing, filing metal, and other work which might 
hurt the regular benches. 

Have everything where it can be reached in the least possible 
time, the tools used most nearest to the worker. Have tools that go 
together, as bit-brace and bits, kept near together. Have all the 
common tools within reach, instead of put away in chests and drawers. 

Oily rags should either be burned at once, or, if a few are kept, 
should be kept in a stone jar or covered tin box. They are dangerous. 
If there is any dampness in the shop, the steel and iron parts of the 
tools should be rubbed, after using, with a little fat, — tallow, lard, 
wax, vaseline, oily cloth, or some anti-rust preparation. 



PART I 

COMMON TOOLS AND THEIR USES ^ 

TOOLS FOR LAYING OUT AND TESTING WORK 

The most important are the Rule, Square, Knife, Scratch-awl, 
Pencil, Bevel, Gauge, Compasses, Straight-edge, Chalk, Chalk-line, 
Level, and Plumb. 

4. The Rule, used to measure and lay out work, is divided into 
inches, halves, quarters, eighths, and sixteenths. To mark distances 
for accurate work, lay the rule on edge so that the divisions on its 
side touch the wood (Fig. 5). In making several small measurements 





Fig. 6 

do not move the rule (Fig. 5). To 
measure as in Fig. 6, use any divis- 
ions on the rule rather than its 
end, for the end is likely to be 

' A number of illustrations of tools are given through the courtesy of the Stanley 
Rule and Level Co., New Britain, Connecticut. 

6 



Fig. 5 



Common Tools and Their Uses 7 

inaccurate, and is harder to place in line with the edge of the wood. 
The thumb will help adjust the rule. 




A two-foot rule, folding once, is convenient for bench-work. A four- 
fold rule, folding to six inches in length, is better to carry around, and many 
prefer to begin with it because of its common use among workmen. The 

zigzag folding rule from 2' to 
8' long is convenient, fairly 
accurate, and in common use. 
The extension or slide rule 
is useful for obtaining inside 
dimensions (see below). The 
caliper rule is also good for 
small outside measurements 
(see Calipers, page 21). A 
stick six feet long and another 
ten or twelve, with feet and 
inches marked, are handy in 
laying out work. 

To find the middle of a 
given distance, as the width of 
a board, witi the rule, slide it across the surface until some inch-mark is at 
an equal distance from each edge of the board (Fig. 7). 

To divide a distance, as the width 
of a board, with the rule, into an 
equal number of parts, place the rule 
so that the required number of 
equal divisions upon it will just 
reach from one edge of the board to 
the other, and make a dot exactly 
at each division (Fig. 8). 

To find the distance between 
two points, where it is not con- 
venient to use a common rule, meas- Fig- 8 
ure with an extension or slide rule; or, where you cannot mark the dis- 
tance on a single stick, two sticks may be used as in Fig. 9. 



Fig- 7 



\ 


i^ 


^ 


^H^^H^^z™ 


■1 


k 



Fig. 9 

next face. 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 

The Square. — The try- square is to test right-angled work, and 
to mark Hnes at right angles across surfaces. Keep 
the beam or head (Fig. lo) pressed against the sur- 
face to which it is applied, and the blade will then 
be in position for either marking or testing a right 
angle (Figs, ii and 12). 

A good way to mark with the square is 
to place the knife on the given point and 
slide the square along until it hits it (Fig. 
11). Then draw the line. To continue 
such a line upon the adjacent surface, place 
the knife at the end of the line as in Fig. 
13, slide the square up to it, and mark the 



Fig. 10 





Fig. II 



Fig. 12 



In testing a surface or edge with the try-square (Figs. 12, 14, 
15), place it at several points. Face the light. 



The best try-squares are entirely of metal. A medium-sized one 
(9- or lo-inch blade) is more useful than a small one. A scale is often 
marked on the blade. Sometimes the end of the head or beam next 
the blade is cut on a bevel (Fig. 16), for mitring (see page 142), but the 



Common Tools and Their Uses 




bevel is so short that it is accurate only for very small work, (See Bevel, 

To square across or around an hexag- 
onal, octagonal , or cylindrical stick, place 
a rectangular piece between the head of 
the square and the stick (Fig. 17). 

To lay out a bevel with a square, 
get out a wedge-shaped piece with the 
required taper and use it as in Figs. 
18 and 19. A saw-kerf can be made 
in the wedge to admit the blade of the 
square. (See Bevel, page 10.) 

The framing-square, "steel 
square," or two-foot carpenter's 
Fig. 13 square, is used like the try-square 

and is of great value in getting out 
stock, in laying out work, and in testing work too large for the try- 
square. It can also be used as a rule (see page 6), as a straight-edge 
(see page 16), and to set the bevel at different angles (see page 10.) 
Many computations can 
be made by means of 
the figures on the blades. 
For squaring large work, 
see page 223. 

6. The Knife, which 
should be used for fine, 
accurate marking may be 
a common pocket-knife, 
a sloyd knife, or a special 
marking knife. The 
scratch-awl can also be Fig. 14 

used. 

The marking-awl, or scratch-awl, has a round, sharp point, and 
can be used like the knife for marking. 




10 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 




Fig. 15 



7. The Pencil. — For moderately 
nice work a round pencil (medium-hard or 
somewhat soft) will do. A pencil is best 
to mark curves which cannot be drawn 
with compasses. 
Sharpen pencil 
points on fine sand- 
paper or a file kept 
for the purpose. For 
framing and the 
rougher kinds of carpentry, for getting out stock, etc . , 
a carpenter's pencil sharpened flatways may be used. 
8. The Bevel is similar to the try-square, but 
the blade can be set at any angle. The mitre-square 
is fixed at an angle of 45°, and is better for accurate mitre- work than 
the adjustable beve' (seepage 142). The head of the bevel like that 
of the square must be held firmly against the wood (Fig. 20). 

To get angles of 45° and 135° with the bevel, place it against the in- 




Fig. 16 




side edge of the steel-square (Fig. 21), and 
set the blade at the same distance on each 
Fig. 17 arm of the square." See also page 226. 

' A right angle can be drawn from the straight-edge of a board, points marked at 
equal distances from the point A (Fig. 22), and the bevel set by these points. 



Common Tools and Their Uses 



II 



To make a bevel for small work, useful when the same angle is to be tested 
frequently, take a small block of wood 2" or 3" long and about i" square, 
make a saw-kerf in one end, and fit tightly in this kerf at the required angle 
a slip of wood 2" or 3" long (Fig. 23). 




Fig. 19 





Fig. 20 



A Protractor can also be 
used for obtaining any de- 
sired angle. 

See under Square, page 9, 
and also page 226. 

9. The Gauge is used to 
draw lines parallel to an edge. 
It has a block, called the head, 
stock, or fence, to slide against 
the edge of the wood, and a 
bar, beam, or stem, which 
passes through the block, and 
can be set by a thumb-screw to project to the distance required. A 
spur or marking-point is inserted near the end of the bar, which has the 



Fig. 21 



12 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 



divisions of a rule 
marked upon it, by 
which to set the spur, 
but it is more accu- 
rate to measure with 
the rule from the 
head of the gauge to 
the point of the spur 
(Fig. 27). It is bet- 
ter to sharpen the 
spur to an edge par- 
allel with the head 
(Fig. 24) rather than 
to a point. ^ 




Fig. 22 



1 6 • 



See that the spur projects from j\" to 
^-^j Hold gauge and rule as in Fig. 26. Set the spur 

.^ijl^m ^m at the required distance from the 

^^^^^ ^m head by adjusting with the thumbs 

^H and forefingers. "^ Tighten thethumb- 

screw and test the distance with the 
rule (Fig. 2'/). Push the end of the 
piece of wood to be gauged against 
the bench-stop or some other firm 
object. Hold the gauge as in Fig. 28 in front of you and tip it from 
you so that the spur will be drawn along the siu-face and make only 
a slight mark. Keep the head of the gauge firmly pressed against the 
edge of the wood and push the tool steadily from you. 



V 



Fig. 23 



Fig. 24 



' The spur will make a better line when slightly convex on the side toward the 
head (Fig. 25), This helps to keep the head close to the wood. 

' In getting out stock for nice work, if the gauge is set exactly at the given distance, 
when the gauge-mark is planed out afterwards, the piece will be slightly smaller than 
intended, so allow for the width of the gauge-line in such cases. In gauging for joints and 
the like, set the gauge exactly right and make no allowance. 



Common Tools and Their Uses 



13 



When the spur is quite far from the head, the gauge can be held 
as in Fig. 29. 

In marking across the grain, unless the sptir has a very- 
keen knife-edged point, use the square and knife or scratch- 
awl instead, for nice work, else the wood may be torn. ^ 
Let gauge-marks run by (see page 17) where they will p 
not show after the work is finished. Gauge from the same 
side of the wood in laying out mortises or any lines to be 
at a fixed distance from the edge, else the gauging may pig_ 25 
not come parallel (see page 3). 

The only gauge 
needed in many 
cases, where accu- 
racy is not called 
for, is a rule and 
a pencil, A line 
may be drawn at a 
given distance from 
the edge of a board 
as in Fig. 30. For 
lines near the edge, 
as in chamfering or 
bevelling, where it 




Fig. 26 



will not do to scratch the 
wood, the finger and pen- 
cil can be used as in Fig. 
31, or a gauge with a hole 
bored near one end of the 
bar or beam, into which 
a pencil will fit tightly. 

It saves time to have 
at least two gauges for or- 
dinary work. For special 
cases a fixed gauge can be 




Fig. 27 



14 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 



made (Figs. 32 and 33). The form shown in Fig. 33 is better for straight 
work because the head is longer. 





Fig. 29 
It saves time but is not a necessity- 



Fig. 28 

The mortise- gauge has two 

spurs, one of which can be set at 

any required distance from the 

other, and two lines marked at 

once, as for a mortise (see page 144). 

and is often hard for the beginner to use. 

Some gauges have a steel wheel 
with sharpened edge instead of a 
spur. Occasionally a knife point or 
blade is used for cutting thin stock. 
There are gauges called panel-gauges, 
with long beams and heads for wide 
spaces. One can easily be made. 

10. Compasses are used to 
strike circles or arcs; to lay off 
angles and arcs; to take measure- 
Pj ments from a rule, a drawing, or 

some object; to lay out measure- 
ments; and to ''scribe" where a gauge can not be used. To set 




Common Tools and Their Uses 



15 



them by the rule place the points on the rule as in Fig. 34. When 

striking circles or arcs, hold the compasses by the top at the hinged 

joint, as grasping them lower down 

may cause the points to move; and 

lean them slightly in the direction 

they are being turned, so that the 

marking point will be drawn along 

smoothly (Fig. 35). Hold them in 

the same way when "stepping off" 

measurements. 




Fig. 31 



Wing compasses, or those with arc 
and set screw, are easy to adjust and 
will not slip. A pencil attachment can 
be used on one leg. In nicely smoothed 
work a thin slip of wood should be 
put under the point of the compasses 
(Fig. 36). 

To draw a circular curve at the end 
of the piece in Fig. 37 set the compasses at one half the width and scribe 

a line at that distance 

from the end, across 

the middle of the sur- 
face. Also another 

from one edge. Where 

the two lines cross, 

set one point of the 

compasses and strike 

the arc as shown in 

Fig. 38. 

Or, as in Fig. 39, 

find the middle of 

the end (A) and also 

the same distance (D) 

from the corner on 
From these points with radius AB , strike arcs intersecting at 




Fig. 2>^ 





Fig. 33 



Fig. 34 



one edge. 



i6 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 



C. Where marks will deface the work when finished, place a thin piece 
of cardboard or wood on the surface. 

To strike larger circles or arcs than can be done with the compasses, 





Fig- 36 

a beam-compass (sometimes called a 
Fig. 35 trammel) is used. This is a rod having 

sliding sockets which carry steel or pen- 
cil points (Fig. 40). As a substitute, two nails (or a nail and a pencil) put 
through a stick can be used (Fig. 41). This is more accurate than to use a 
string. (See also page 231.) 

To scribe a line parallel to another Hne or surface, as in fitting the edge 
of a board to an irregular surface as shown in Fig. 42 

Eor 43, run the compasses along with one point on the 
irregular surface and the other 
Pig 27 marking the piece to be fitted. ^ 

See also page 221 for problems re- 3 
quiring the compasses, or dividers. 



I 



as^ 



Fig. 38 



II. The Straight-edge is 

used in marking straight lines 
and for testing the straightness 



Fig. 39 



of edges and surfaces. Any piece of wood or other material that 



17 



Common Tools and Their Uses 

has a straight edge and is convenient to use can __S_ 
be so called, from a common ruler or the edge ^ J~\ 
of a square to a long board. 1 



When marking by a straight-edge keep the 
marking tool very slightly inclined away from Fig. 40 

the straight-edge, but with the point close to 

the edge (Figs. 11 and 13). The 




^ 



\r\ 



\ 



\ 



marking point often tends to fol- 
low the grain of the wood and 
run o£f the line, and will force the 
straight-edge out of place unless 
the latter be held firmly (see 
page 220). It saves time to let 
lines which meet at a point 
cross one another. Also the crossing of two lines marks a point 
in the most accurate way. For work to be nicely finished, however, 
make no unnecessary lines where they will show. Light pencil marks 
can be removed by a rubber eraser, in preference to sandpaper or 
scraper. 



Fig. 41 





Fig. 42 



Fig. 43 



Every woodworking shop should have at least two or three straight- 
edges. Good sizes are about 4' long, 2|" to 32" wide, V or |" thick; 
and 8' or 10' long, 4" wide, and about i" thick. For short work use the 
edge of the framing-square, or the try-square. Clear straight-grained 



i8 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 



white pine or mahogany is good for a straight-edge. Sometimes one be- 
comes curved. To test, mark a fine Hne by it, then turn it over and see 
if the edge coincides with the line. 

The straight-edge is also used to determine whether a surface 

is straight or "true." A sur- 

I l^P^^^i'^^^^:^^ face is true only when a straight- 

Fig. 44 edge (in whatever position 

placed) will touch it throughout. 
A surface may be smooth without being true. The board in Fig. 44 
is a true surface. Sight across it in any direction and the edges will 
be in line and no point of the 



_ ^] ^?^^^^ 



surface above or below the edges. 

On the other hand, when the 

board is warped as in Fig. 45, the Fig. 45 

surface is "winding," 

A well-trained eye is one of the most valuable possessions of a 
skilled workman. Therefore do all the testing you can by eye before 
using instruments. When planing the edge of a board, for instance, 
sight lengthways toward the light (Fig. 46). If you can see that the 
edge is too high or too low anywhere, do not stop to apply a straight- 
edge, but plane until it looks 
straight. Use the straight-edge 
only as a final test (Fig. 47). 
Always look toward the light. If 
any shows through, the edge is 
not straight, but must be planed 
until the straight-edge touches it 
throughout. In the same way, to 
F;g_ 46 determine whether a broad sur- 

face is true sight across it from 
different directions (Figs. 48, 49, 50), lengthways of the surface, 
crossways, and diagonally, finally using the straight-edge (Figs. 51, 
52, 53). When the surface is true, the straight-edge (in whatever 




Common Tools and Their Uses 



19 






'-^3Hrr»^ 




Fig. 47 



position placed) will touch it throughout. The plane can often be 
used as a straight-edge for testing (Fig. 144). 

12. Chalk is used for 
rough marking and also 
with the chalk-line. (See 
Chalk-line, below). 

Sticks of graphite or 
some composition are also 
good for the roughest mark- 
ing, but not with the chalk- 
line. 

13. The Chalk-line is 
a chalked cord used to mark 
between two points. A 
small cord is better than 
a large one. At one end 

of the desired line fix the cord with a loop around an awl or nail, and 
chalk it from this end, as in Fig. 54, so that the chalk will not be cut in 
two. It can be revolved in the hand as the line is chalked. Then draw 
the coid taut to the other end of the desired line, hold it down with 

one hand, lift it squarely from as 
near the middle as practicable with 
the thumb and forefinger of the other 
hand, and let it snap back to the 
surface (Fig. 55). 

14. The Spirit-level (usually 
combined with a Plumb) is import- 
ant in carpentry and building and 
for many kinds of mechanical work. 

For large work a long straight- 
edge of equal width throughout should 
first be placed on the surface to be 
tested, and the level or plumb applied to the straight-edge (Fig. 
56). 




Fig. 48 



20 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 



To get a plumb-line hang any weight at the end of a cord. The cord 
will be vertical as soon as it stops swinging (Fig. 57). The cord can be 
hung on a board with a line gauged down the middle of the side, parallel 
to the edges (Fig. 58). When the cord hangs exactly on the line, or at the 




Fig. 49 



apex of the notch, the edge of the board will be vertical. A long plumb is 
more accurate than a short one in most cases. For example, the post 
plumbed as in Fig. 59 a, will be vertical, taken as a whole; but if only a part 
of it be plumbed, it may lean to one side (Fig. 59 b). 




Fig. 50 



As a horizontal or level line is at right angles with a vertical one, a 
level can be made as in Fig. 60. When the plumb-line ab, at right angles 
to cd, is vertical, cd will be level. The frame should be several feet long 
for large work. 



Common Tools and Their Uses 



21 



15. Calipers, which 
are called "inside "or 
' * outside , ' ' according 
to whether they are 
to find the diameter of 
a hole or the outside 
diameter of an object, 
are very important in 
some work, as turning. 
The diameter of a 
curved object can 
often be found by 
some simple combina- 
tion of squares, rules, 
etc., as suggested in 
Fig. 61. 

Small outside measurements can often be taken with the caliper- 
rule. 

16. A Flexible Ruler, or spline, of wood, rubber, or other 
material can be used for drawing irregular curves. (Fig. 62. See 
page 236.) 



^^1 




^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^B^_^Liiiii^^u-.ii^.^^^^^^^^^l 


1 


fmi 




1 




'^^^m 



Fig. 51 




Fig. 52 



SAWS 

There are many kinds 
of hand saws, both coarse 
and fine, for cutting with 
the grain and across it, and 
for curved work. In most 
saws the teeth are bent 
outwards, one tooth to one 
side, the next to the other. 
This is called the set, and 
makes the cut wider than 



22 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 



the thickness of the blade, allowing the saw to slip back and for-th 

easily' (Fig. 63). 

17. The Cross-cutting Saw is used for sawing across the grain. 

The teeth are pointed and sharp (Fig. 64), and cut across the fibres 

of the wood somewhat like 
the point of a knife. The 
sharp cutting edge of each 
tooth is on the outside. The 
teeth cut best when slightly 
inclined toward the tip of the 
saw (Fig. 64). 

First place the wood upon 
a pair of horses, or fasten it 
in the vise. Hold the saw 
firmly, with the forefinger 
against the side of the handle 
_. to steady it (Fig. 65). Seize 

the wood with the left hand, 

place the saw at the outside edge 

of the line, and hold the thumb of 

the left hand against the blade 

(above the teeth) to help start the 

cut in the right place (Fig. 66). 

First draw the saw gently back- 
wards, lest it splinter the edge, 

with as little pressure as possible, 

then push it gently forward, and 

after a few easy strokes to get the 

cut started right, move the left 

hand a little further away and saw '^" ^'^ 

with long, steady strokes, but not such long strokes that the tip of 





' The blade of the common hand saw is thicker at the teeth than at the back, and 
at the handle than at the tip, to stiffen it and to enable it to pass through the wood 
freely. 



Common Tools and Their Uses 



23 



the saw enters the kerf, lest it catch and the saw buckle. With a 
sharp saw there is nothing gained by bearing down heavily on the 




Fig. 55 

teeth. Rather let it run of itself with an easy, light stroke, guiding 
it carefully. Sawing furiously may make the saw jump out of the kerf 
and damage the work or cut the hand. 

If the saw begins to run off ^ _ _ 



the line, twist it a little with 
the wrist as you go on (Fig. 67) 
to bring it back to the line, 
which can be done most easily 

when the saw is 

held at about the 

angle shown in 

Fig- 74- 

Try to keep the 

side of the saw 

blade at right 

angles with the 

surface of the 

wood. It can be 

tested with the 
try-square (Fig. 68), but this 
is inconvenient and it is best to learn to 



i 




Fig. 57 




Fig. 56 

saw without 
such help. If the 
saw is not cutting 
squarely, bend 
the blade side- 
ways (Fig. 69). 

At the end of 
the cut saw gently 
with light strokes 
and hold with the 
left hand the piece 
which is being cut 
off, or support it 



r^ 



Or 

Fig. 58 



24 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 




Fig. 60 

in some way, lest it break off and splinter 
one of the two pieces (Fig, 70). 

From 18" to 24" is a good length for a cross- 
cutting saw, with about 8 to 10 teeth to the 
inch. For ordinary work 10 points to the inch is 
a good number. A figure often found near the Fig- 61 

saw handle tells the number of points to the inch. 

The slant given the teeth — the rake or pitch — is such that the point 
can be drawn smoothly and easily across the wood. The degree to which 
the teeth are set and the number of teeth to the inch depend upon the use 





Fig. 62 



to which the saw is to be put. The less set in any hand-saw the better, 
provided it is enough to give the blade clearance. The finer the teeth the 
smoother the cut. A cross-cutting saw for soft wood can be given more 



Common Tools and Their Uses 



25 




set than one for hard wood. The former needs a wider set to give the blade 

clearance, because the fibres of the looser-textured soft wood are bent aside 
by the saw teeth and are 
not so cleanly cut off as in 
the hard wood. It is com- 
mon, however, to use the 
same saw for both soft and " 
hard wood. 
In nice work, a little notch can be 

made with the knife or chisel on the outside of the line, to help start the 

saw (Fig. 71). 




Fig. 63 



Tip 



Handle 

Fig. 64 



18. The Splitting-saw (or ripping-saw) is used to cut with the 
grain, and the teeth differ 
from those of the cross-cut- 
ting saw. The latter are 
like little knives to cut 
across the grain, but the 
teeth of the splitting-saw 
cut only on the forward 
stroke, and are like little 
chisels to cut with the grain 
(Fig. 72), but are not suit- 
able to cut directly across 
the grain. The sharp ends, 
which are square (Fig, 73, 
showing set), or may be 
oblique, cut ofif the fibres, 
and the front edges of the 
teeth push them out of the 
kerf. The splitting-saw is 
used like the cross-cutting 
saw (see page 22) but usually cuts best when held slanting (Fig. 74). 

If the cut closes after the saw so as to "bind" it, drive a wedge 
into the kerf (Fig. 74). When you come to a hard knot it is sometimes 




Fig. 65 



26 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 




Fig. 66 




Fig. 67 




Fig. 



Fig. 69 



Common Tools and Their Uses 



27 




Fig. 70 



best to take the cross-cutting saw to 
cut through it. Many pieces of wood 
can best be screwed in the vise for 
sawing, grasping the wood with the 
left hand. If the saw is cutting far 
from the vise it may "chatter" and 
not work well. While finishing the 
cut hold the ends in place (Fig. 75). 

In sawing into a block after cut- 
ting about as far as shown in Fig. 
76, reverse the piece and saw from the 
opposite side as shown in Fig. ']'] , 

and so on. Thus you have only to follow the line on the side 
towards you. As your skill increases you can saw further without 
reversing. 

The ripping-saw usually has larger teeth than the cross-cutting 

saw. Seven points to 

the inch is good for 

common work. Five to 

eight points to the inch 

will cover ordinary cases. 

19. The Back-saw has a very thin blade to make a fine cut, and a 

back of metal to give the blade firmness. This saw is used like the 

cross-cutting saw (see page 22), but care must be taken lest the blade 

become bent. Fig. 78 shows a com- 

Place the 



mon use of the back-saw. 
wood upon the bench-hook (see page Fig. 73 

83), start the stroke as with the cross- 
cutting saw in the position shown in Fig. 79, and gradually lower 
the handle until the blade cuts the whole width of the piece (Fig. 
80). Great care is necessary to cut exactly to the knife line. The 
back-saw can also be used as in Figs. 76 and 77, and to saw two ends 
to fit (see page 155). See Mitre-box, page 85. 

20. Saws for Cutting Curves. — It is well to learn the use of the 




Fig. 71 



Fig. 72 



28 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 




compass-saw, the keyhole-saw, the how- or 
turning-saw, and the fine coping-saw, al- 
though the bow-saw and compass-saw are Fig. 75 
now seldom used by practical workmen, 

since most curved sawing can be done better, quicker, easier, and 
cheaper by a band-saw or a jig-saw. The compass- and keyhole-saws 
must be used with care, as the narrow blades are easily injured. 




Fig. 76 



Fig. 77 



21. The Compass-saw is for cutting curves, and is used like 
the other saws. In sawing holes ("inside" or "coring" work) one or 
more smaller holes must be bored in which to start the saw (Fig. 81). 
The blade is narrow, tapers from the handle to the tip, also from the 



Common Tools and Their Uses 



29 



teeth to the back-edge, and 
the teeth have a wide set. 
Thus it will cut a small circle. 
The teeth are a kind of com- 
promise between those of the 
splitting- and cross-cutting 
saws, to cut freely either way 
of the grain. 

22. The Keyhole-saw is 
smaller than the compass- 
saw and is used in the same 
way for cutting quicker 
curves, as for a keyhole. 
The blade can usually be 
adjusted to project from the 




Fig. 78 



handle to suit the size of hole to be cut. The compass and 
keyhole saws are sometimes combined, with several blades. 

23. The Turning-saw or Bow- 
saw can be used for curves when 




Fig. 79 



Fig. 80 



30 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 



the frame will not prevent. Hold it by the larger handle with both 
hands (Fig. 82). The teeth should point from you. Saw lightly with 




Fig. 81 

long, even strokes. Try to make the cut square with the 
surface. The handles and blade should turn so that sawing can 





82 



Fig. 83 

be done at an angle with the 
frame. 

24. The Coping-saw or 
Bracket-saw is useful for fine 
work. Cut the end of a board 
as in Fig. 83. Clamp this on 



bench or table and use the saw as in Fig. 84. 



Common Tools and Their Uses 



31 




Fig. 84 



For Saw-machmery, see page 88. 
For Sharpening Saws, see page 136. 

CHISELS 

25. The Firmer-chisel is meant 
for hand- work only, for paring and 
trimming wood to shape, and can 
be used for Hght mortising. 

26. The Framing-chisel is stouter 
than the firmer, to stand heavy blows 
of the mallet, in framing, mortising, 
and other heavy work. 

The chisel handle is usually held 
with one hand, and the other used 
to guide the blade and also to rest 
upon and hold the wood in place if necessary (Fig. 89). The left 
hand should always be kept behind the cutting-edge. Where the 
wood and tool can not both be securely held by the left hand the 
work should be firmly fastened by vise, or clamp, and the left hand 
be free to help control the chisel. ' For fine cutting the chisel can be 
controlled as in Fig. 102. The fingers of the left hand can thus guide 

or check the tool as it is pushed 
forward by the right hand. As 
a rule cut with the flat side of 
the chisel next the wood. 

A slicing or shearing stroke^ 
is effective. That is, hold the 
tool so that the edge cuts slant- 
ingly, or somewhat sideways, in- 
stead of being pushed straight 
Fig. 85 through the wood (Fig. 94). 

' It is largely by the varying balance of two forces — the pushing forward of the chisel 

with one hand and the controlling with the other — that effective use of the tool is acquired. 

^ The edge of a razor can be pressed against the hand without cutting, but if moved 




32 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking: 




A curve like that shown in Fig. 86 can be cut 
best by first removing part of the wood with the 
saw. Then hold the chisel as shown in Fig. 88. 
Begin at the edge just outside of the end of the 
curve and work with the grain, so that the waste 
'^' ^ wood may break off and not the part to be kept. 

Take such a position that you can 
sight along the flat side of the chisel 
and thus keep it perpendicular, else 
the cutting may not be square with 
the surface. Advance the tool a lit- 
tle for each stroke so as to trim off but 
little at a time with the forward edge 
of the chisel. Keep the flat surface of 
the chisel against the part already cut 
as a guide. Either cut straight down 
with the chisel or, as is often better, 
start the chisel as in Fig. ^J and push 
the handle both forward and down- 
ward until at the end of the stroke 
the tool is upright (Fig. 88) . Or hold 
the chisel upright and move it side- 
ways as it is pushed down, making a 
slanting cut (Fig. 89 and 88a.) As 

you trim to the line test the squareness. Another way is flrst to cut 
off the comer with the chisel up to the curve (Fig. 86), keeping the 
surface and edges square. Then pare off the angles again and so on 
(Fig. 90) until the .curve is cut. 

lengthways it will cut at once. Even a blade of grass will cut if drawn quickly through 
the hand. A powerful microscope will show that the edge of a sharp tool, which seems 
smooth, is really quite rough and ragged, and will, as a rule, tear or saw its way through 
the wood best if used with a slanting or sideways stroke (Fig. 85), at the same time 
that it is pushed forward. Usually the softer the material the greater the advantage 
in this slanting or slicing stroke. Owing to the angle at which it works, the cutting 
edge can also be considered as thinner, and so more effective, with a slanting stroke. 




Fig. 87 



Common Tools and Their Uses 



33 




Fig. 88a 



Saw cuts can often be made nearly to the line, 
so that the waste wood can be cut off easily with- 
out danger of splitting the work (Fig. 91). The 
shave is usually a better tool for curved work. 
(See pages 59 and 102.) 

The cleanest cutting can often be done across 
the grain with a slanting stroke (Fig. 92). Slant 
the cut, if possible, so that any splitting will be 

in the waste wood and not in the part to 
be kept. Cut the opposite way when the 
direction of the grain changes, but some 
pieces are so irregular in grain that this 
cannot be done. In cutting off or round- 
ing a corner or an edge, a slanting or 
shearing cut can be used (Figs. 93 and 

94)- 

Sometimes the chisel will work best 

with the basil (or sloping side) downward 
(Fig. 95) , until the line is nearly reached. 
The surface can then be smoothed with 
the fiat side of the tool downward. Figs. 
91a, 96, 97, 98, and 99 show other ways of 
using the chisel for paring. 

To remove the wood from a gain (Fig. 
100), pare off thin shavings from one side (Fig, loi). Then cut 
from the other side. Finally trim carefully to the line. Usually 
the best way to smooth the bottoms of gains and grooves is 
with the router. (See page 43.) Moving the chisel handle from 
side to side as the tool is pushed forward (Figs. loi and 102) gives 
a slanting effect to the stroke. (See page 31.) Another way 
is to make slanting cuts at each side of the space until they 
meet (Fig. 103). Then trim down to the line with the chisel held 
flatways. 

To pare to a line ABC (Fig. 104), bevel or chamfer each edge to the 




Fig. 



34 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 




Fig. 89 

line (Fig. 105), and then pare across with the chisel until the chamfers 
are removed. 

For sharpening, see page 128. 

Socket chisels are the best and those with disks of sole leather, or 
ferrules, where the handles are struck by the mallet, are strongest for 
heavy work. Mortise-chisels with great thickness of blade are not likely 

to break in heavy work, and 

the thick blade tends to make 

the cutting more accurate. 

Besides the firmer-chisel, the 

paring-chisel is used for paring 

only, and is lighter than the 
^^' ^" firmer. The blade of the firmer or other Hght chisel is 

of steel only, while that of the framing-chisel is partly of iron to make 
it tougher. 

Bevel-edged chisels, with the long edges bevelled on the same side as 
the cutting basil, are convenient for working into corners, dovetailing and 
the like, and are easier to sharpen than those with square edges. The 
corner of the basil is sometimes ground off. The Straight-bent chisel 





Fig. 91 



Common Tools and Their Uses 



35 




Fig. 91a 




Fig. 92 



(Fig. 106) is useful for cleaning out comers, grooves, and other places 
where the common firmer-chisel cannot be used to advantage. (See also 





Fig- 93 

Router, page 43). A Skew- 
chisel has a slanting edge and 
is convenient for corners and 
odd-shaped work. See Carv- 
ing Tools, -page 17L. There 
are other chisels seldom 
needed by the beginner, as 
the corner-chisel, which is similar to the carver's V- or parting-tool, and is 
used in angles and corners. 



Fig. 94 



PLANES 

A plane is, in principle, a chisel stuck through a block which 
serves to control the cutting. The sharp-edged piece of steel which 
cuts the wood is called the plane-iron (Fig. 107). ' The bottom surface 
of a plane is called the face or sole (Fig. 108), the wedge-shaped hole 

» Sometimes called the plane-bit. 



36 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 




Fig- 95 



where the plane-iron goes is called the throat, 
and the slot at the bottom through which the 
edge of the iron projects is called the mouth 
(Fig. io8). Most common planes have a plane- 
iron cap with a dull edge screwed to the face of 
the cutting-iron (Fig. 109), and are called 
' ' double-ironed ' ' planes. ^ 

With cross-grained wood the mouth should 
be narrow to ensure a smooth 
surface. The more cross- 
grained the wood the nearer 
the cap should be to the cut- 
ting-edge. The nearer it is 
to the cutting - edge, the 
smoother the result, but the 
harder to work the plane. 
Screw the cap firmly in posi- 
tion, else it may slip. Also 
see that the edge of the cap 
fits tightly against the plane- 
iron so that shavings cannot 
pass up between them. The 
edge of the cap can be ground 
to fit if necessary. 

Sight along the face (Fig. 
in) to see that the iron pro- 
jects the right amount, and 
also that it is not askew, lest one side cut more deeply than the 
other. The way to adjust the iron in an iron plane is easily learned 
from the plane itself. The iron should project more for soft and loose- 

' The single plane-iron when used against the grain (Fig. no) or on cross-grained 
wood, is apt to leave the surface rough, because the shavings tend to split the wood ahead 
of the cutting edge. Therefore the cap is added to bend the shavings up against the 
forward edge of the mouth, so that they can be cut off smoothly before splitting begins. 




Fig. 96 



Common Tools and Their Uses 



37 




Fig- 97 



grained wood than for hard , 
and the cap-iron be nearer 
the edge for hard wood. 
The beginner is apt to set 
the iron to project too 
much, — to make too thick 
shavings. 

To raise the iron of a 
wooden plane, hold the plane 
with the left hand so that 

the iron cannot fall through, and tap on the top of the fore end of the plane 
(Fig. 112) or on the rear end of the smoothing- plane (Fig. 113). When 

the iron is adjusted fix it firmly 
in place by tapping on top of 
the "chip" or wedge which 
holds it in place (Fig. 114). 
To lower the cutting-edge, tap 
on the upper end of the iron 
(Fig. 1 15) and then on the chip 
as before. To remove the iron 
for sharpening, the chip also 
Fig- 98 is removed. Hold the plane 

in the left hand in these ad- 
justing operations. Do not strike any part of it while it rests on anything 
solid. If the cutting-edge projects unevenly, tap on one edge of the 
upper part of the iron (Fig. 116). 

Good planes are made with wooden 
stocks, but with the adjustments of the 
iron planes. Some workmen still prefer 
the wooden planes, as there is a light- 
ness and smoothness about their action 
not found in the iron ones. The wooden 
stocks however sooner or later become 
warped and then the face has to be Fig. 99 

"jointed" to make it true. Iron planes 





38 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 



are easier to adjust and to keep in order. To protect the cutting-edge 
lay planes on their sides or ends, or, better, arrange a little strip to raise 
one end slightly from the bench or shelf. 

27. The Jack-plane, as now commonly 
used, is to straighten and level the surface 
of the wood, and can be followed by the 
smoothing-plane. The iron is ground square- 
^'^" ^°° ly across (Fig. 107), but with the' comers 

very slightly rounded. 

This plane was formerly used for coarse work and to rough off the 






Fig. lOi 



Fig. 102 



surface before using the other planes. The cutting-edge was rounded, cut 
deepest in the middle (Fig. 117), and removed heavy shavings, leaving 
the surface uneven (Fig. 118, exaggerated). The jack-plane was followed 

by the longer fore-plane or trying-plane, which 
was used to straighten and level the surface, — 
the iron being but very slightly rounded. These 
planes are still occasionally used, but as ma- 
chine-planed stock can be obtained of any 
Fig- 103 desired dimensions almost everywhere, the jack- 

plane and fore-plane now commonly have the iron ground squarely across 
and differ only in size. It is often convenient to have an extra jack- 
plane iron with rounded edge for rough work. The jack-plane (with 




Common Tools and Their Uses 



39 




rounded edge) is good for "traversing" or planing across the "grain, which 
is frequently the best way to plane down a surface. (See page 50.) 

28. The Jointer is longer than the jack-plane and thus more 
accurate for making a surface level and true. It 
is good to straighten the edges of boards. (See a 
Jointing, page 47, and also page 45.) The long 
jointer is longer than the jointer and corre- 
spondingly more accurate. 

29. The Smoothing-plane is used for the final 
smoothing of the surface, so far as it can be done 
with a plane.' It will make a surface smooth; 
but unless the surface is small, it is hard to make 
it straight or level or true with this plane, be- 
cause it is short and will follow the irregularities of 

the surface (Fig. 119). 

The smoothing - plane 

^. ^ is therefore merely to 

Fig. 106 



Fig. 104 




Fig. 105 



smooth the surface after it has been straight- 
ened by a longer plane (Fig. 133), or where the surface must be 
smooth but need not be true. Small pieces can be straightened 
and trued by the smoothing-plane alone. See also Block-plane^ 
below and Planing, page 43. 




A wooden smoothing-plane can 
be held as shown in Fig. 120. 



30. The Block-plane is chiefly 
for planing across the ends of 

pieces (for planing "end-grain"). ^'S- 107 

It has a single iron set at a more acute angle with the face than in 
the other planes and with the bevel upward. The width of the mouth 
is often adjustable. As the block-plane can be used with one hand, 

' The final smoothing of nice work is done with the scraper (page 61) and sandpaper 
(page 78) . 



40 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 




it is convenient for trimming pieces which cannot well be held in the 
vise. Modern machinery and trimmers have greatly lessened the 
value of the block-plane. Many prefer the smoothing-plane. 

To plane across end 
grain, work from both 
edges (Fig. 121), to pre- 
vent either edge chipping 
off. Press down on the 

r- ,0 front of the plane and 

fig. 108 -"^ 

stop planing before reach- 
ing the further edge. Then re- 
verse and plane from the other 
edge in the same way. Some- 
times a piece of waste wood can 
be put at one edge to prevent 
chipping (Fig. 122), or one edge 
can first be cut off as in Fig. 123. 

The ends of many pieces can be planed on the bench-hook, jack- 
board, or shooting-board. (See page 8^.) Hold the piece firmly 
against the "stop" or cross-piece of the bench-hook, with the end 




Fig. 109 




PLANING WITH THE GRAIN 



PLANING AGAINST THE GRAIN 



Fig. I 10 



just at the edge (Fig. 124). Then plane as shown and the end of the 
piece will be smoothed and perhaps squared. The joint-edge (the 
one from which the work is squared (see page 4) should be placed 



Common Tools and Their Uses 



41 



next the stop. All planing done in this way should be carefully 
tested with the square and replaned if necessary, until correct. ' 





Fig. 112 

When the end is large or 
nearly square in section, it 
can be held in the vise and 
planed diagonally from corner 
Fig. Ill to corner, both ways, as de- 

scribed above (Fig. 125). 
31. The Toothed-plane is about the size of the smoothing-plane, 





Fig. 113 



114 



'It rarely happens that the surfaces of the bench and bench-hook will be so accurate, 
and the handling of the plane so skilful that the result can be assumed to be exact. There- 
fore it should always be tested. Many prefer to fasten the wood in the vise for this kind 
of planing (Figs. 121 and 125). 



42 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 



but the iron is set almost vertically and the flat side is scored length- 
ways with fine grooves (Fig. 126), so that the cutting-edge has little 





Fig. 115 



Fig. 116 




Fig. 118 



teeth which make grooves on the surface of the wood. It is used in 
veneering (see page 177) and other work, to make the glue hold more 
strongly (see page 182). 

A very cross-grained surface 
can sometimes be smoothed 
more easily if it is first "toothed " 
in different directions. If a 
surface cannot be planed smooth 
however, the trouble is usually 
Fig. 117 with the edge of the plane-iron or the adjustment, or with the 
manner of planing, for a very keen edge should cut the most 
obstinate grain, unless the wood is extraordinarily hard and knurl y. 

32. The Bull-nosed plane has the iron at the fore end, to work 
into places which cannot be reached by the common planes. The 
iron is reversed. The Rabbet-plane is to cut rabbets (page 159). 
Much of its work is now done by machinery. The planing can be 
started with the aid of a straight-edge as a guide. Hold the plane 
firmly against the wood without tipping it sideways. The Circular- 



Common Tools and Their Uses 



43 




plane has a flexible sole of thin metal, which can be adjusted to plane 
either convex or concave surfaces. The Router is for smoothing 
the bottoms of grooves and depressions, and is useful in fitting hinges, 
locks, and similar work, and in in- 
laying. There are other planes for 
special purposes, as, for example, the 
plough, matching- planes, hollow and 
round planes, beading-pla?ies, etc., as 
well as ' ' combination ' ' and ' ' univer- 
sal" planes. The plough and 
matching-planes must be kept level 
or square with the surface. Modern 
machinery, when available, does 
most of the work of these special 

planes more quickly and economically than it can be done by hand 
and progressive workmen only use them in case of necessity, 

33. Planing. — Before be- 
ginning to plane, see that all 
dirt or grit which might dull 
the tool is brushed from the 
surface. Fasten the wood low 
in the vise (Fig. 127), as you 
can plane better than if the 
pj„ J 20 surface is high, or lay it upon 



Fig. 119 





Fig. 121 



44 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 



the bench top against the stop, or fasten it 
between one of the stops and the tail vise 
(Fig. 214), as the case may require. If the 
piece is long and tends to drop at the un- 
supported end, fasten a hand-screw to it 
(Fig. 128). See that the plane is set right 
(see page 36). Place the wood so as to 
plane with the grain if possible. Stand at 
the rear end of the work and hold the plane 
as in Fig. 127.' Plane with the arms from 
the shoulder, not with the whole body.^ Press down on the forward 
part of the plane during the first part of the stroke, and on the rear 
part of the plane during the last part of the stroke (Fig. 131). Plane 
slowly, and watch the mouth of the plane and the shavings to know 




Fig. 122 




Fig. 123 



Fig. 124 



whether the work is being done right. With cross-grained stock 
plane with the grain as much as you can, turning the piece around if 
necessary. Sometimes it is well to turn the plane sideways to make 

' Hold a wooden plane as shown in Fig. 128a. 

^ It is natural to begin and end the stroke as shown in Fig 129 and to roll the body 
back and forth, with the result shown in Fig. 130, and the plane is apt to "chatter" or 
jump, making little hollows and ridges. 



Common Tools and Their Uses 



45 




Fig. 125 



all the "planer-marks' 



a slanting cut across the 
grain (Fig. 132. See also 
page 50) , but as a rule the 
plane should be pushed 
straight forward. If it 
runs hard a few drops 
of oil can be rubbed on 
the face, but useno greasy 
lubricator to deface the 
surface of nice work. An 
oiled pad is good to lay planes on 
when not in use. Wood planed by 
a common machine planer may 
seem smooth, but nice work should 
be planed by hand carefully until 
are removed. (See page 107.) 




If you have to start or end a stroke at any other point than the end 
of the piece, the rear end of the plane can be lifted slightly from the wood 
at the beginning and end of 
the stroke, thus tapering the 
ends of the shaving. A light, 
easy movement in placing 
and raising the plane is all 
that is necessary. This is not 
easy to describe but can be 
learned by experiment. 

34. Planing Edges and 
Narrow Surfaces. — What 
you have to do is to make 
the edge straight from end Fig. 127 

to end and also square with 

the side of the piece. A long plane does this better than a short one 
(Fig. 133). Use the jack-plane, fore-plane, jointer, or long jointer, 




46 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 



as the case may require. 




Fig. 128 



The plane-iron should be set fine, unless 

the edge is very 
uneven, when 
coarse shavings 
can be made at 
first. Before 
planing an edge 
see that the 
plane-iron pro- 
jects evenly. 
In planing or 
''jointing" an edge it is common to hold the fingers below the sole of 
the plane as a guide (Fig. 134).^ The jointing should be done with 
long, deliberate, steady strokes. The last stroke should be the full 
length of the piece if possible. Sight and test the edge as already 
shown. (See p. 18.) 

If one side of an edge is too high, the plane can be moved over 
so as to plane that side only 
(Fig. 135). If the edge of 
the plane-iron is at all round- 
ing, it will then take off a 
shaving thicker on one edge 
than the other (Fig. 136). 
If part of the edge is higher 
on one side and part on the 
other, making the edge wind- 
ing, the planing can be begun 
as just directed and the plane 
worked over to the other 
edge as it is pushed forward 
(Figs. 135, 137. 138). In 

' A wrong position of the left hand on the fore part of a wooden plane (see Fig. 128a 
for correct position) will tend to tip the plane sideways. The shooting-board can be 
used to advantage for short pieces (see page 83), and attachable guides can also be 
obtained. 




Fig. 128a 



Common Tools and Their Uses 



47 




bevelling or rounding an edge, or planing an end, it is often best to 
hold the plane as in Fig. 139. 

35. Jointing is planing edges to make a tight joint. The term 
is also commonly applied to 
straightening and squaring 
the edge of one piece only, 
as to "joint" the edge of a 
board. If the edge is neariy 
straight, the only plane needed 
is the jack-plane or fore-plane, 
- — or better, the jointer, or the 
long jointer, if the piece is 
long. The plane should be 
set fine, but if much wood is 
to be planed off it can be set 
to make a coarse shaving at 
first. 



Fig. 129 



Fig. 130 







Jit^f jvair jita^ 



^ 



Fig- 131 



To plane for a "glue- 
joint," first see which 
edges will best go together. 
In joining two or more 
boards to make a wider 
one, notice the way the 
grain runs lengthways, and 
the way it crops up to the 
surface, for usually the sur- 
face will have to be planed 
after the joint is glued, and 
if the grain runs in differ- 
ent ways it will be hard to 
make the surface smooth. ^ 
With soft, straight-grained 

'Sometimes, however, in handsomely figured wood, as quartered oak or mahogany, 
the pieces should be arranged in the way that looks the best, but in such cases extra labor 
is expected in order to have the article as handsome as possible. 




Fig. 132 



48 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 




Fig. 133 

white pine or white wood, for example, this is of less importance 
than with wood which is hard to smooth. In jointing narrow se- 
lected p i e c e s to be 
glued together so as 
to prevent warping, 
etc., examine the 
end grain and ar- 
range it in different 
ways (Fig. 140. See 
p. 212). 

When the pieces 
are arranged, mark 
on the surface across 
the joints (Fig. 141), to show which edges go together, for this is easy 





Fig- 134 



Fig. 135 






Fig. 136 



Fig. 137 



Fig. 138 



Common Tools and Their Uses 



49 




Fig. 139 



to forget. Joint each edge separately. For nice work plane edges, 

which are to be joined, from op- 
posite sides, — that is, if the edge 

of the first piece is placed in the 

vise with the marked side of the 

board toward you, plane the next 

piece with the marked side 

against the bench, or away from 

you. This is to offset any un- 

evenness in setting the plane- 
iron, tipping of the plane to 

one side, or winding in the pieces. 

(See Shooting-board,psige 83.) Do 

not use the try-square to test the 

edge when making glue-joints. 

To test the planing, put one piece in the vise with the jointed 

edge up, place the other piece on it in the proper position, and see if 

the edges touch 

|:fe^^5|^JS:fefe^^^ ^ throughout. No- 
Fig. 140 tice whether you 
can see the light 

through anywhere. Strike the under 

board slightly to see if the upper one 

shakes or tips sideways or endways. 

Also slide the top board length- 
ways, for a sensation of adhesion or 
suction can be felt when the two edge? 
fit, and press down at the ends to see 
if they touch. If the edges do not 
touch throughout, one or both must 
be planed with thin, careful strokes 
until they fit, for the joint will not be 
good otherwise. 
Fig. 142 Not only must the edges touch 




Fig. 141 



50 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 



throughout, but the sides of the boards must be in Hne (in the same 
plane). Test this with the steel square or any straight-edge (Fig. 
142. See also Circular-saw, page 100). Before gluing hard wood 
edges it is well to plane them with the toothed-plane. (See page 41.) 

Sometimes the edges of boards to be glued are made slightly concave 
lengthways, so that they touch at the ends but do not quite come to- 
gether in the middle (Fig. 143), the idea be- 
ing that a clamp applied at the middle will, 
by forcing the joint together for its whole 
length and expelling the surplus glue, give 
a stronger result than if the edges are 
straight. If there is to be any open place 
in the joint before gluing, it is better to 
have it in the middle than at the ends, and in the case of long joints it may 
be best to have the edges slightly apart in the middle; but with short joints 
the advantage of this method is certainly doubtful. 



Fig. 143 




Fig. 144 



36. Planing Broad Surfaces. — Keep the plane from tipping 
sideways at the edges or more will be planed off there than elsewhere. 

If much wood has to be removed, it is often best to plane across 
the grain (called "traversing") first, either planing straight across at 



Common Tools and Their Uses 



51 



Working face 



Fig. 145 



Wo thing face 
Join-f- edg e 

Fig. 146 




right angles to the front of the bench, or as in Fig. 132. Also plane 
diagonally or at whatever angle will give the best result. The final 

smoothing off should 
be with the grain. 

Test by sighting 
with the eye in differ- 
ent directions and 
with a straight-edge 
(see page 18), or the 
edge of the plane itself, if straight (Fig. 144). By applying a straight- 
edge lengthways, crossways, and diagonally, you can determine 
whether the surface as a whole is straight and true. Winding-sticks 
can also be used. (See page 86.) 

37. Squaring Stock to Dimensions. — To plane a piece of rough 
stock to a rectangular shape and given dimensions : 

First: Select one surface, usually the better side, not an edge, for 
the "working-face," as in Fig. 145, make it straight, true, and smooth 
with the plane, and mark it as shown, or with an X or any simple 
mark. 

Second: Select one of the edges, usually the better one, for the 
" joint -edge" 
(see page 4), as 
shown in Fig. 
146, and plane 
it straight and 
square through- 
out w i t h t h e 
working-face, testing in the usual manner. Mark it as before. 
Third: Set the gauge at the required width and gauge a line ab 
on the working-face and also on the opposite face, cd (Fig. 147), 
gauging from the joint-edge. 

Fourth : Plane to these gauge lines. 

Fifth : Set the gauge at the required thickness and gauge lines 
ef and gh on both edges, gauging from the working-face (Fig. 148). 




Fig. 147 



Fig. 148 



52 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 




Sixth: Plane the surface opposite the working-face down to the 
gauge Hnes just made. ' 

Seventh : With try-square and knife square 
Hnes around the four sides near one end 
(Fig. 149), squaring from the working-face 
and joint-edge; and saw and plane to the 
lines, testing with try-square. 

Eighth: From the end just finished meas- 
ure the required length on the working-face 
and with square and knife mark lines around the piece (Fig. 1 50) , as 
at the first end. Saw and plane to the lines, and the piece will be 
reduced to the required dimensions. Do all 
squaring from the working-face or joint-edge. A 

For sharpening the plane, see page 128. // 



Fig. 149 



BORING TOOLS 




38. The Brad-awl should not be quite Y\g. 150 

so large as the nail to be driven. Bore 

with the cutting-edge across the grain (Fig. 151) lest the wedge shape 

of the tool cause the wood to split. 
After the edge is well into the wood, 
the awl can be twisted a little 
back and forth as it is pushed 
further. There is always risk of 
splitting thin wood near an edge. 




Fig. 151 



It is well to have a variety of sizes. 
A handle into which different awls 



' Theoretically, if the working-face and joint-edge are made true and square with one 
another, planing to the gauge marks on this opposite side is all that is necessary, without 
testing to see that the surface is straight and true. But, practically, no part of the work 
is perfect; therefore if dimensions are more important than accuracy of shape, there is no 
object in testing after the work has been cut to the lines, for any alteration would change 
the dimensions. On the contrary, if accuracy of shape is more important than exact 
dimensions, the surfaces and angles should be tested and corrected, even though this makes 
a slight change in the dimensions. 



Common Tools and Their Uses 



53 



can be fitted is sometimes used, but for shop- work it is more conve- 
nient to have each awl in a separate handle. Unlike gimlets and bits, the 
awl does not remove any wood, but merely presses it aside, so the fibres 
of the wood tend to close tightly around the nail or screw. 

39. The Gimlet is occasionally useful, as in repairing in awkward 
places, but for general use is superseded. Great care is needed to 
prevent splitting thin wood or near an edge. 

40. The Auger. — The cutting part of an auger is like that of 
the auger-bit (Fig. 152), but the upper end of the shank 

(which can be of any length) is either bent into a crank-like 
handle, or has a handle attached to it. Although an old- 
fashioned tool, it is in common use in carpentry, shipbuild- 
ing, and the larger forms of woodwork. 

41. The Bit-brace or Bit-stock. — The ratchet-brace is 
preferable to the common form, because it can be used 
where there is not room to turn the handle around. 

An extension, fitted to the brace, can be used in places which 
cannot be reached without it, — also a "universal angle" ap- 
pliance, to bore in out-of-the-way places ; but these are seldom 
needed in new work, if properly planned. 

42. Bits. — The Auger-bit consists, at the cutting end, of 
a worm or spur, two scoring-nibs, and two cutting-lips. The pjg 152 
worm a (Fig. 152), acting as a screw, draws the bit into the 

w^ood so that the scoring-nibs b make a circular cut. As this cut 
deepens, the cutting-lips c slice off shavings, which are brought to 
the surface as the boring proceeds. See Sharpening, page 135. 

The sizes are arranged by sixteenths of an inch from y^" to 2" in diam- 
eter. The number on the shank is the numerator of a fraction of which 
the denominator is 16, and indicates the size. If the number is 8, the bit 
is Y^ of an inch in diameter, that is, h inch. A short auger- or dowel-bit is 
sometimes convenient for do welling (page 152) and other work, and is not 
easily bent by the beginner. 




54 A Shorter Course in Woodworking 

43. The Centre-bit is sometimes useful, particularly for very thin 
stock. It cuts a smooth hole, but does not cut very well with the 
grain, that is, in "end wood." The spear-like point a (Fig. 153) 
acts as a centre, the point b scores a deep ring, and the edge c, which 
is bent to form a flat chisel, cuts away the wood. It is well to bore 
a trial hole when exactness is required, because the spur is not quite 

in the centre and thus the hole is a little larger than the bit. 

See Sharpening, page 135. 

44. The Twist-drill makes a good hole, bores easily, is not 
easily dulled, and can be used upon metal. Care is necessary, 
particularly in hard wood, lest it be snapped by bending. It 
ranges in size from y\" to |-". 

45. The Twist-bit for wood cuts quickly and well, and being 
softer than the twist-drill is not so easily broken, but it is 
hard to start exactly at the desired point, is liable to work 
off to one side, and bends easily. It ranges in size by thirty- 
Fig. 153 seconds of an inch from -^ to ff . 

46. The Expansive-bit is adjustable, and with one or 
more sizes holes can be bored from one-half inch in diameter to three 
or four inches. It must be used carefully in hard wood. 

47. Other Bits. — The gimlet-bit is a common form for small 
holes, and is useful to bore for short stout screws. It is easily dulled 
and bent, and its tapering end is apt to split delicate work. It is 
hard to start exactly at the desired point, and is liable to work off 
to one side. The German-bit is a modification of the gimlet-bit, 
twisting but once in its length. The spoon-bit or pod-bit is for small 
holes, but the twist-drill and twist-bit are now used for most purposes. 
The Forstner bit has no worm, so the bottom of the hole is smooth. It 
is good to bore in end-grain, and can also be used with only part of 
the bit bearing on the wood. Drills for metal only are often useful 
to the woodworker, but the most important is the twist-drill for either 
metal or wood. There are various patterns of drill-stocks, some of 
them automatic, for holding drills of various sizes for small holes. 
Radial drills, with chuck, driven by gears, are good. Very small 



Common Tools and Their Uses 



55 




drills for metal are also useful for wood, and can be kept with the 
points stuck in a small flat dish of wax or soap. Reamers, or tapering 
bits (half-round, square, octagonal, conical) 
are to enlarge holes and to make them coni- 
cal, Reamersfor metal are also useful. Bitscan 
be kept in a divided drawer or box, or, more 
conveniently, stuck in holes in racks exposed 
to view. 

The Countersink, used with the bit- brace, 
is to enlarge the outer part of a hole to receive 
the head of a screw (Fig. 185). 

The rose form of countersink is good and suit- ^^' ^^'^ 

able for all hard woods. The Clark double-cut 

. countersink (for wood only) cuts smoothly 

~- ' and is easily sharpened. A countersink 

for metal is useful. 

48. Use of the Brace and Bit. — 

Fasten the bit firmly in the jaws of the 
brace. It is often well before boring 
in hard wood to prick a hole with an 
awl to start the worm of the bit in the 
exact place, as sometimes it works off 
to one side. The worm can be placed 
on the point as in Fig. 154, and the 
brace and bit changed to the proper 
position before boring. After the bit 
has gone a short distance into the wood, 
stop boring, stand squarely in front, 
and judge by eye whether the bit is 
at right angles with the work. Then 
stand at either side at right angles 
to the first position and judge again. Alter the position of the 




155 



56 A Shorter Course in Woodworking 

brace if necessary and repeat the test after boring a little 
farther. 

The square can be used, but it is better to learn to bore without re- 
lying on such help. To keep the bit perpendicular some workmen look 
directly down upon it from above, instead of from the side, turning the 
brace while they move slowly around from one side of the work to the other. 
Some rest the chin on the left hand on top of the handle of the brace, to 
steady it (Fig. 155) ; and to increase the pressure when necessary, as in 
driving heavy screws with the screw-driver-bit, the shoulder is sometimes 
applied. No pressure is needed to bore with an auger-bit. If much force 
is needed it is a sign that the bit is dull, or that something is wrong. 

To remove a bit from the wood, give the brace a turn or two 
backward, which will loosen the worm, and then either pull the bit 
straight out when it can be done easily without turning the brace, 
or as you pull it out keep turning the brace as if boring, thus bringing 
out most of the chips. 

In boring through a piece of wood, watch for the coming through 
of the worm on the other side. When it pricks through, turn the 
piece and bore back from that side. This is to prevent splintering, 
or a ragged or "burred" edge, where the bit leaves the wood. Care 
must be used in boring back from the other side or the bit may tear 
the wood as it comes through. When you cannot bore back from 
the other side, clamp on a piece of waste wood and bore through into 
it. When the position of a hole must be exact on both sides of the 
wood, mark the centre accurately on each side, and bore from each 
side until the holes meet. 

In boring a hole of considerable depth with the grain, that is, 
into the end of a piece of wood, withdraw the bit after boring a short 
distance, to clear the chips from the hole, reinsert, bore, withdraw 
again, and so on. This will make the boring easier and may save 
injury to the bit, and can sometimes be done to advantage when 
boring in other directions. In boring with a small bit, like the gimlet- 
bit, where there is danger of splitting, turn it backward as well as 



Common Tools and Their Uses 



57 




Fig. 156 



forward, and work it slowly through the wood. A gimlet-handle for 

use with small bits and screwdriver-bits, is 

occasionally useful in places where the bit -brace 

cannot be used. 

When holes must be stopped at a fixed depth, 

use one of the bit gauges or stops made for the 

purpose. Lacking this, measure from the 

wood to the chuck of the brace each time, or 

if many holes are to be bored, use a piece 

of wood at the side of the bit (Fig. 156), 

or bore through a piece (Fig, 157). The 

depth can be told approximately by counting 

the turns of the brace in each case. 

To cut a hole larger than any bit bore a 
hole within the circumference of the desired 
circle, in which to insert the blade of the 
keyhole- or bow- or compass-saw, with which 
the curve can be sawed (Fig. 81). The 
edge can finally be smoothed with gouge, 
file, spokeshave, etc., according to the 
size of the hole. See also Jig-saw, page 
104. Or bore a series of smaller holes all 

around and then trim to the line. See also Screw-pocket, page 254, 

and Counterboring, page 177. 

OTHER CUTTING TOOLS 

49. The Hatchet is not easy to control, so keep the fingers out 
of the way and watch the direction of the grain of the wood. To 
remove waste wood it is often best to make cuts nearly to the line 
and then trim to the line (Fig. 158). With crooked grain this lessens 
the danger of splitting the part you wish to keep, (See also page 33.) 

There are many kinds of hatchets, but a common medium-sized 
bench-hatchet that can be used easily with one hand is all that the be- 
ginner will ordinarily need. 




Fig- 15: 



58 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 



50. The Knife. — The sloyd knife is excellent for whittling, but 
the common pocket-knife or jack-knife is commonly used by workmen. 
Keep the left hand behind the blade, and when 
possible cut from you, for the tool may slip. A 
slanting stroke is often best (see page 31). See 
Whittling, page 139. 





A great variety of work can be done with a com- 
mon pocket-knife or jack-knife, which is perhaps the 
best emergency tool for either the beginner or the 
skilled workman. A knife is so easy to sharpen that 
there is not much excuse for using a dull one. (See 
Fig. 158 page 132.) In selecting a pocket-knife get a plain 

one, with not more than two or three blades, and of 
the best steel. Open the blades to see that each is in line with the handle, 
as is necessary for strength. 

51. The Gouge is like the chisel except that the blade is curved. 
The common gouge has the basil or bevel on the convex or outer side 
and is known as an "outside" gouge. It is used for ordinary work. 
The "inside" gouge has the basil on the inner or concave side, and 
is useful for some purposes, but is less important than the out- 
side gouge for general work, and is harder to sharpen. Gouges, like 
chisels, are of various kinds for different uses, and are of different de- 
grees of "sweep" or curvature,^ — Fig. 159 showing a "fiat" and a 
"quick" curve. In using the outside gouge, light, 
short strokes frequently have to be made, for only 
the basil bears on the wood, which makes this 
gouge hard to control at times ; but as long strokes 
should be taken as the nature of the wood will allow, 
often be rolled around with the hand to make a slanting cut (see 
page 31), sometimes useful with crooked grain or across the grain 
(Fig. 160). In working out a moulding or other odd shape, for 
instance, the tool can often be held at an angle with the work (Fig. 
161). Watch the grain of the wood. Try not to scoop little hollows 




Common Tools and Their Uses 



59 




below the required depth of the cut. To smooth the surface after 
using the gouge, take the file, or curved scraper, and sandpaper, the 
latter held around a 
block curved to fit 
the desired shape. ' 
(See page 78.) 

52. The Spoke- 
shave works on the 
same principle as the Pig jg^ 
plane, but as it has 

a short sole or face to bear on the wood, 
it is used only for shaping and smooth- 
ing small curved or irregular surfaces. 
Grasp it firmly as in Fig. 162, bear 
downward, and push it from you so as 
to cut like a plane. It can also be 
drawn toward you. See Sharpening, 

page 128. 
Fig. 161 

Metal spokeshaves of various patterns 
are made with adjustments for dif- 
ferent curves , etc. , — also a * ' universal ' ' 
spokeshave with movable handles 
and detachable side for rabbeting. 
The spokeshave is very valuable for 
much curved work, but should not be 
used as a substitute for the plane. 

53. The Draw-knife or Draw- 
shave is useful for slicing off 
large shavings and for trimming 
wood into odd shapes (Fig. 163). 
It cuts much like a knife or very 

Fig. 162 

wide chisel, and can be used with the 

' In carved work this smoothing can be omitted, as it is usually best to show the 
tool-marks. 





6o 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 



flat side or the bevel against the wood as may be required. As it has 

only a short surface to bear on the wood and guide its course, it is 

apt to follow the grain and 
cut too deeply, so be careful 
to cut with the grain if pos- 
sible. Stop and cut the other 
way whenever necessary. It 
is often best either to draw 
the tool sideways across the 
work while pulling it toward 
you (Fig. 164), or to hold it 
obliquely and pull it straight 
toward you (Fig. 165. See 
Fig. 163 page 31.) It is a dangerous 

tool if left carelessly on the 

bench. See Paring, page 140, and Chamfering, page 158, and 

Sharpening, page 133. 






Fig. 164 



Fig. 165 



Draw-knives are made with folding and adjustable handles, for places 
which can not be reached by the blade of the common form, and there are 
guiding attachments for chamfering, etc. 



Common Tools and Their Uses 



6i 



54. Trimmers, which are made in many forms, are excellent 
for trimming the ends of pieces accurately and smoothly at any 

required angle (Fig 




1 

Fig. 167 



Fig. 166 



166).' An effective 
shearing stroke (see 
page 31) is made, and 
the wood trimmed to 
shape by a succession of thin 
slicing cuts. The cutting edge 
must be kept sharp. 

55. The Scraper. — The cabi- 
net-scraper is made of saw-blade 
steel, and is used to make a sur- 
face smoother than can be done 
with the plane or other tool. 
The edge is turned over as in 
Fig. 167 (see also page 109) and 

cuts off thin shavings. Hold the scraper between the fingers and 

thumbs (Fig. 168), inclined from you but as nearly upright as will 

allow the edge to cut well, and push it 

forward with force. Spring or bend it 

slightly so that it will cut in the mid- 
dle (Fig. 169). Scrape with the grain 

as a rule. It is often best however to 

hold the scraper obliquely to the grain 

(Fig. 168), when there are little ridges 

or undulations on the surface, and where 

there are alternations of hard and soft 

grain, as in quartered oak. If the 

grain is crooked or twisted, scrape in any 

direction that will make the surface 




Fig. 168 



smooth. Test for smoothness by running the fingers over the surface 
with a light touch. An experienced workman can at once feel in- 

' By permission of Fox Machine Co., Grand Rapids, Michigan. 



62 



A Shorter Course in Woodworkinof 



equalities that he cannot see. When the scraper ceases to make fine 
shavings and merely scrapes off wood-dust, it is dull and should be 
sharpened. See Sharpening, page 133. 




Fig. 169 



Sometimes one end is held between the thumb and fingers of one hand 
and the palm of the other hand applied below to push the tool (Fig. 170), 

but for nice work the way shown in 
Fig. 169 is best. 

A scraper is sometimes set in a 
stock with a handle or handles and 
also in, a stock like that of a plane. 
The latter helps to keep the surface 
of the wood true, as the fiat sole can 
not follow the irregularities like the 
hand scraper, with which there is dan- 
ger of scraping more in one spot than 
in another. But so far as smoothing 
the surface goes there is nothing better 
or more easily taken care of than the 
common hand-scraper. It is best 
to follow the scraper-plane with the hand-scraper. It is well to have 




Fig. 170 



Common Tools and Their Uses 63 

curved-edged scrapers for curved work. A block with slanting saw-cuts 
is good to hold scrapers when not in use. See Scraping-machines , page 109. 

56. A few Carving-tools are often useful, and can have handles 
different from those of the other tools. A few carving chisels, both 
square-edged and skew (with the end ground obliquely) , are good for 
odd-shaped work because the edge is bevelled on both sides. A 
parting-tool ("V" tool) and a small veining-tool (like a very small 
gouge) are occasionally convenient, though rarely needed for plain 
work. 

TOOLS FOR PUTTING WORK TOGETHER 

57. The Hammer. — The common forms for ordinary woodwork 
are the bell-faced and the flat-faced. The face is the part which 
strikes the nail. The former kind, as the face is slightly convex, will 
drive the nail farther into the wood without marring the surface than 
can be done with the flat-faced hammer. 

There are many other varieties for special purposes, as for upholstering, 
riveting, etc. For general use choose a carpenter's hammer of medium 
size and weight. The Maydole bell-faced is good. A smaller brad- 
hammer or upholsterer's hammer is also very convenient. 

58. Use of the Hammer. Nailing. — Hold the hammer near 
the end of the handle, ^ and swing it freely but so that the head can 
strike the nail squarely (Fig. 171) and not slantingly, or it may be 
driven crooked or bent. Use light strokes — mere taps — in starting 
the nail. After you are sure it is going straight, you can use more 
force. On nice work do not try to sink the nail quite flush with the 
wood. Leave that for the nail-set (see page 68), as even a slight 
dent will be likely to show when the work is finished. 

To start a nail straight, sight it from different directions. Keep 
the face of the hammer free from grease or glue. Bore holes when 

' In rare cases it will do to hold it nearer the head, as in driving very fine brads in 
delicate work. 



64 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 



there is danger of splitting or when slender nails are driven into hard 
wood, lest they bend. The hole should not be quite so large as the 





Fig. 171 



Fig. 172 



nail. To drive long, slender nails into hard wood, hold with pincers 
(Fig. 172), or between three fingers, to lessen the danger of bending. 
With nails having large heads and in hard wood the holes in the outer 
piece can be about as large as the nails, if the latter drive tightly into 
the inner piece. 

In such cases as shown in Fig. 636, drive the nails into the outer 
piece until the points prick through. Then place the piece in position 
for nailing and the points of the nails will help hold it in place. Nails 
drive into hard wood easier if the points are rubbed on a piece of soap. 

59. "Toe" Nailing. — Nails hold strongest 

when driven slanting or "toed" (Fig. 173). 

Slanting the nails helps to 

draw one piece tightly up 

to another (Fig. 174), and 

this effect can sometimes 

be increased, after the 
nail has been driven part way, by drawing the hammer in the di- 
rection of the point of the nail so as to bend the upper part toward the 
other piece. 




Fig. 173 




Common Tools and Their Uses 



65 



60. Clinching. — For good work nails made expressly for clinch- 
ing should be used, though for rough work any nail that can be bent 
without breaking will do. Drive the nail through, hold a hammer or 
piece of metal against the head, and strike the projecting point with 
light, slanting blows so as to curl 
it over gradually to one side. 
As it bends, strike more directly 
downward until the hooked end 
is embedded in the wood. 
Clinch across the grain of the 
wood. The nail can be driven 
through a little way, the point 
bent over, the nail then driven 
in to the head, and the clinching 
finished by striking the bent end 
so that it is sunk in the wood, 
but without crushing the fibres 
(Fig. 175). Another way is to 
drive the nail through against a 
heavy hammer or other solid 

piece of metal, held on the other side, so that the point is bent over 
until buried in the wood. 

Clinching is often useful, as in nailing cleats on a rough door 
and in boat work, and is better than toeing for anything that is to 
have violent strain. 

61. Staggering. — In naiHng cleats, or in similar cases, "stagger" 

the nails, that is, arrange them in a zigzag way 
(Fig. 442). This usually distributes them to 
the best advantage and lessens the danger of 
splitting the wood. This also applies to screws. 
(See page 69.) 
62. Blind-nailing leaves no holes on the sur- 
face, as in floors of matched-boards. Each board is nailed slantingly 
just above the tongue (Fig. 176). This holds it down and draws it 




Fig. 175 




Fig. 176 



66 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 



toward the adjoining board. 
conceals the naiUng. 



The grooved edge of the next board 



''Sliver'' nailing is sometimes used for nice work. A little shaving is 
raised with the gouge (an inside gouge is best) or a narrow chisel ' 
(Fig. 177), so that the nail can be driven and set. Hot glue is 
then dabbed into the groove, the shaving pressed back, and the 
place immediately rubbed with sandpaper drawn around a flat 
block until the shaving is firmly stuck. There may be a ques- 
tion as to the desirability of concealing methods of construction. 

The old-fashioned nails which taper on two sides should be 
used on the same principle as the brad-awl (seepage 52), or the 
wedged shape of the nail may cause the wood to split (Fig. 178). With 
two sides smooth and two rough, you can tell by the fingers, as you pick 






Fig. 179 



the nails up, which way to hold them, the rough sides going across the 
grain and the smooth sides with it. 
' A special tool is made for this purpose. 



Common Tools and Their Uses 67 

To set nails, see Nail-set, page 68. 

To withdraw nails place a block under the hammer-head (Fig. 
179), using thicker blocking, if necessary, as the nail is withdrawn, 
so that it can come out straight. After withdrawing a nail which 
has not driven straight, do not drive another in the same hole. 

To draw nails from boxes, and in similar cases, pry up a board, together 
with the nails, a short distance — perhaps 34" — and then with a quick 
blow of the hammer pound the board back into place, striking between 
the nails. This will usually leave the nail-heads projecting a little above 
the surface, so that they can be drawn, as in Fig. 179. This saves 
splitting the boards and bending the nails. 

63. Nails. — Wire nails are now used for most purposes, although 
the old-fashioned nails are better for some work, as shingling. 

The old terms three-penny, eight-penny, etc., indicate the size. Dis- 
tinguish between the common nails with broad flat heads and those with 
smaller round heads. The smaller sizes of the latter are called brads. If 
they are to be set,' use the round-headed ones, as the flat-heads make rough 
holes. Copper or galvanized nails and tacks are best for boat-building, 
copper being preferable, particularly for salt water. 

64. Tacks are sold as one-ounce, two-ounce, and so on, according 
to size. Do not use tacks for fastening wood to wood (except in 
canvas-canoe work), but only for fastening leather, cloth, or the 
like to wood. The pointed wedge shape of the tack tends to split 
thin wood. 

65. A Rivet is a pin of metal with a head, especially useful in 
boat work. Bore a hole for the rivet, drive it through the wood or 
metal, hold a hammer or solid piece of metal against the head, and 
pound down or "upset" the other end to form a second head. A 
washer or "burr" is sHpped over the end of the rivet before upsetting 
it. 

66. Bolts are of various kinds and are of great use where frame- 

' Sunk below the surface. See Nail-set, page 68. 



68 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 



work must be fastened more securely than by screws or nails, as in parts 
of a gate, a bob-sled, boat-work, a heavy bench, etc, A washer should 
be used between the wood and the nut, and in work exposed to the 
weather a bolt should not be screwed up so tightly that the head is 

sunk in the wood, as water is apt to settle in the de- 

ii ^ pression and cause decay. 

Pj jg^ 67. Dogs, which are merely short iron rods with 

the ends pointed and bent at right angles to be 

driven into the wood, are often used in heavy construction. If 

the pointed ends slant outwards slightly, they will tend to draw 

the pieces together (Fig. 180). 






r ^^ 


m'^^ 



Fig. 181 



Fig. 182 



68. The Nail-set or Punch is to sink nail-heads below the surface. 
Hold it firmly against the little finger, with the latter on the wood 
close to the head of the nail (Fig. 181), lest the nail-set slip off and 
deface the wood. The end must not be allowed to become rounded. 
If necessary, the head of a nail can be used (Fig. 182). 

It is well to have several sizes. A slight conical depression in the end 
is good, and for larger nails there is also the spur set. 



69. The Screw-driver. — Workmen usually prefer a long screw- 



Common Tools and Their Uses 



69 



driver to a short one. A screw-driver-bit is useful for driving screws 
rapidly and with force, because of the leverage gained by the brace. 
Automatic screw-drivers work well for light work. 

The end should be shaped like either of those 
in Fig. 183, so that it will remain at the bottom 
of the slot of the screw. If ground with a short 
bevel (Fig. 184), it will bear only at the top of the 
slot and will keep slipping out, on the principle of 
the inclined plane. A short bevel is also bad in 
extracting screws, as it necessitates pressing hard 
against the screw to keep the screw-driver from slipping out of the slot. 





Fig. 183 



Fig. 184 



70. Screws. — The common wood screws are either flat-headed, 
round-headed, or "oval "-headed, and of steel (bright, blued, bronzed, 
copper-plated, galvanized, or nickeled), or of brass. To make a screw 
drive easily, rub the point on soap or beeswax. 



The lag-screw is sometimes useful in fastening framework, as a bench, 
but should not be used where it will be seen in nice work. Nails are some- 
times used when it would be better to use screws. Screws can often be 
tightened, if necessary, where nails would have to be re-driven. It is a 
recent custom to fasten many pieces of furniture with round-headed screws. 
In some cases this construction is strong. In others it is not. In most 
cases it gives the article the appearance of having been made either by an 
amateur or at a factory where cheapness of manufacture is the chief aim. 
The screw derives its value, mechanically speaking, from the principle of the 
inclined plane, — consisting of a thread winding spirally around a cylinder 
or conically terminated cylinder, the "pitch" of the screw depending on 
the inclination of the inclined plane or spiral. The size is indicated by the 
length in inches or fractions of an inch, and by the size of the wire from 
which the screw is made, as a i3^" screw No. 9, meaning one and one- 
half inches long and made from No. 9 wire. Wood screws are made from 
}/^" to 6" in length and of wire from i to 30. Some screws for rough 
work are made to be driven with the hammer, the screw-driver being used 
only to finish the driving. 



70 A Shorter Course in Woodworking 

The hole for a screw should be so bored that the screw will just 
slip freely through the outer piece, and be screwed firmly into the 
inner one only (Fig. 185). The head of the screw will thus draw the 
outer piece tightly against the inner one. 

The size of the hole in the inner piece should depend on circum- 
stances. The stouter the screw the smaller hole required. The softer 
and larger the piece of wood the smaller hole required. If the 
piece is small or liable to split, the hole must be carefully 
made — very carefully in hard wood for a slender screw, as it 
is liable to twist off unless a sufficient hole is provided. Brass 
screws are very apt to do this, and much care must be used 
Fig. 185 in hard wood. If the hole is a trifle too large they will not 
hold. If a trifle too small they will twist off, which is very troublesome in 
such cases as hinge-screws, for instance, where the place for the screw can 
not well be changed. The hole in the inner piece (Fig. 185) should be 
somewhat smaller than the diameter of the screw. If the wood is quite 
hard the hole may be even as large as the core or solid shank of the screw 
if the threads were stripped off. In good sized pieces of soft wood there 
is frequently no need of any hole in the inner piece. Stop turning a screw 
in soft wood when it is well driven home, or you may strip off the thread 
the screw has cut in the wood. 

Sink fiat-headed screws flush with the surface, first using the 
countersink. For rough work in soft wood, however, the head of 
the screw can be driven flush with the screw-driver. If a screw 
hole must be moved a little, but not far enough to bore a new hole 
without the bit slipping into the old one, fit and drive in a wooden 
plug so that the new hole can be bored where required. For indoor 
work the plug can be dipped in glue. See Screw-driver, page 68 and 
•Staggering, page 65. 

71. Hand-screws are useful to hold pieces in any required 
position and to clamp work that has been glued. The larger sizes 
are more generally useful than the smaller ones. The C-shaped iron 
clamps, or carriage clamps, are also of great service. 



Common Tools and Their Uses 



71 



To open or close a hand-screw, hold it at arm's length with a 
handle in each hand, and revolve it toward or from you (Fig. 186). 




Fig. 186 

When fitting it to hold two or more pieces, leave the jaws open a little 
at the tip at first (Fig. 187). Then give the final tightening with the 
outer screw until the jaws bear on the wood evenly (Fig. 188). When 
the surface of the wood may be injured by the pressure, put pieces of 
waste wood between the work and the jaws. Before glue is applied, 
the hand-screws should be fitted and placed where they can be put 
on as quickly as possible. 






Fig. 188 



Fig. 189 



Glue often sticks to the insides of the jaws and should be removed 
by scraping, lest it deface the work. The screw threads should be 
rubbed over with blacklead, soap, bayberry -tallow, or beeswax 
and tallow melted together. 



72 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 




Fig. 190 



A clamp, suitable for such work as temporarily holding in place 

parts of a boat, is shown in Fig. 189. A hand-screw used in the bench- 
vise is sometimes convenient to hold an odd- 
shaped piece (Fig. 190). 

72. Clamps.^ — Cabinet-clamps, shown in 
Figs. 192 and 193, are useful in making glue- 
joints and in other operations. To clamp 
two or more flat pieces together, as in making 
a glue-joint, or a door-frame, lay the work on 
the horses, and apply the clamps as in Fig. 
191. Put pieces of waste wood between the 
work and the clamps. Place the clamps so 

that either the flat sides of the 

bars or the corners, as shown, 

touch the surface of the work, 

to keep it from bending 

toward the bars when the 

screws are tightened. Be- 
fore glue is applied, the 

clamps should be fitted and 

placed where they can be put 

on as quickly as possible. 

When several clamps are 

used, tighten each in turn a 

little at a time, so that the 

joints may be brought together evenly. There is not much danger 

of clamping too securely.' See Jointing, page 47. 




' Unless the pieces are firmly clamped throughout, their shape may change before 
the glue becomes set. Clamping at only one or two points may force the joint to open 
elsewhere. First make the best joint you can. Then, after gluing, hold the pieces 
together with a good number of clamps, firmly and evenly tightened. The old-fashioned 
way of rubbing the two edges together and then leaving the rest to the glue is not so good 
for the begirmer as to use clamps, except with small pieces, such as corner-blocks. (See 
page 76.) 



Common Tools and Their Uses 



73 



As the clamps are tightened sight across the surface of the work. It 
will often be winding. (See page i8.) When this happens, move one or 
more corners of the work up or down, as may be required, in the clamps 
(Fig. 192), until the surface is true. A little experimenting will show how 
to do this. In the case of 
framed work, such as doors, 
also test the angles with 
the square as soon as the 
joints come together. If 
the angles are not right, 
move one end of either or 
both of the clamps to the 
right or left, as the case 
may require (Fig. 193), and Fig. 192 

you can easily change the 

angle until the square shows it to be right, when the screws can be tightened 
and the joints should close accurately. In truing work in this way with 






Fig. 193 



74 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 



clamps, particularly when cold glue is used, examine once or twice soon 
after setting the clamps to see that the continued pressure has not moved 
the work too much. 

In such cases as that shown in Fig. 191, if hot glue is used, waste 
no time in trying to get the surfaces exactly flush with each other at 
the joint before partially tightening the clamps, lest the glue become 
set. Then any slight alteration can be made by tapping with the 
hammer near the joint. Use a waste block to strike against unless 
the dent from the blow will be removed afterwards by planing. The 
clamps can then be screwed tighter. See Glue, page 182. Where the 
pieces to be glued could be bent by the pressure of the clamps, put 





Fig. 194 



Fig. 195 



stout pieces of waste wood between the work and the clamps (Fig. 
194), to distribute the pressure and prevent bruising. See also 
Hand- screws, page 70, 

Where pieces are already finished or for any reason can not be planed 
or scraped near the joint after gluing, put paper between the joint and 
the clamps. 

Wooden clamps answer every purpose. Steel ones are better, but 
more expensive. Wood and iron are also combined. For heavy work, 
metal screws with winch handles are good. 

Useful clamps can be made of any strong strips of wood of suitable 
length by nailing with clinch nails, or screwing, or bolting a block at each 
end (Fig. 195). The work can be tightly wedged to a close bearing by 
driving the slightly tapered double wedge (see Wedges, page 139) ; or by 
fastening one of the blocks at an angle, a single wedge of corresponding 
slant can be used. 



Common Tools and Their Uses 



75 



Fig. 196 shows a simple clamp, easily made of two strips with corre- 
sponding holes in each. 




Fig. 196 

In some cases a stout cord doubled, can be put around the work, and 
a stick inserted between the two parts of the string. By turning the stick 
the cord becomes twisted and the parts of the work drawn together (Fig. 

197)- 






Fig. 199 

Pressure can sometimes be applied by using the elasticity of a board 
or pole, sprung into place between the work and some firm object, like a 
beam of the floor above (Fig. 198). 

Pressure can often be applied by a lever, and by wedges. To hold 
odd-shaped pieces for working, a clamp can sometimes be used with the 
vise (Fig. 199). 



76 



A Shorter Course in Wood working 




73. Corner-blocks are small pieces of pine, or other wood which 
holds glue well, rubbed with hot glue into interior angles of cabinet- 
work, to strengthen and stiffen the work 
(Fig. 200). The grain of the blocks 
should run in the same direction as that 
of the adjoining surfaces, if possible. 
Have the blocks warm, apply hot glue 
plentifully, rub the blocks back and forth 
several times, and leave to dry. 
Fig. 200 

If cold glue is used, the blocks should be 
held in place with hand-screws or clamps until the glue is hard, or be 
screwed or nailed. 

Blocks to strengthen the inner corners of tables, chairs, 
etc., to be glued and screwed to the rails or other surfaces, 
should be got out with the grain running as shown in Fig. 
201, for strength. The same principle applies to brackets 
of any kind where short grain at the ends would be liable 
to break off. 




Fig. 201 



MISCELLANEOUS TOOLS AND APPLIANCES 

74. The Mallet is used to strike wooden tool handles and is made 
in various forms and sizes. 

For heavy work it is well to have the handle put through the head from 
the outside, because then the head can not come off. A rounded head with 
the handle on the end saves effort, as it is equally effective in any position. 
Hickory, lignum vitee, maple, or any dense, hard wood is good for a mallet. 
Rubber heads are useful in putting furniture together, to save bruising. 

You do not gain force by using the mallet instead of the hammer, but 
the softer and more yielding blow saves the tool-handle. 

75. The File is a piece of hard steel with rows of- ridges or teeth 
cut obliquely on the sruface, and is valuable for smoothing or rounding 
edges and curved surfaces. The teeth incline towards the point of 
the tool, so that it cuts when pushed forward. 



Common Tools and Their Uses 



n 



Fasten the wood firmly and use the file with both hands. Hold 
it with the right hand, thumb uppermost, and steady the end with 
the left hand, thumb uppermost (Fig. 202), or with the fingers or 
palm. To file squarely across, push the 
tool steadily straight forward with a long 
stroke, without rocking up and down. 
Press only on the forward stroke. The 
use of the file is not to be recommended 
where a clean-cutting tool like the plane, 
chisel, drawshave, or spokeshave can be 
used ; but there are many quick curves for 
which it is the best tool, and often there 
is not room to use the edged-tools. In 
filing rounded surfaces, a rocking motion 
is often best, and the way to file in all 
cases should depend upon the shape of 
the work and the grain of the wood. See 
To Round a Stick, page 160. 

The "half-round" shape, or cabinet-file (Fig. 203) is the most 
useful. The round (tapering) form is also convenient. Many other 
shapes, straight and curved, are sometimes useful, as carver's files, 
etc. For metal, the triangular, flat, half-round (Fig. 204), and round 




Fig. 202 



Fig. 203 



Fig. 204 



forms are most needed. When the teeth are cut in one direction 
only a file is called single-cut, but when there are two oblique rows 
of teeth crossing each other it is called double-cut. A file meant for 
wood should not be used on metal, nor a file for metal on wood. Press 
lightly in using a new file. When a file becomes clogged with wood- 
dust or other substances use a file-card, or fine wire brush. Soak a 
clogged file in hot water and brush with a stiff brush. 



78 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 



76. The Rasp — for wood — is a kind of coarse file, but instead 
of ridge-like teeth it is studded with projecting points, which tear off 
the wood more quickly, but more roughly, than the file. It is useful 
to work curved objects roughly into shape. 

A good-sized half-round cabinet-rasp is a valuable tool, if used with 
discretion, but should be put into the hands of advanced workers only, 
for the beginner is apt to prefer it to the edged-tools which he should be 
learning to use. 

77. Sandpaper should be used, as a rule, merely to give a little 
extra smoothness, to remove fine scratches, to round edges and the 

^^^ --^^^^^^^^^^^ like, but not to cut away the wood and 

HHK ^H^Hj^^^^H scrub it into shape. To use it much, ex- 

^^^•^^^^^^^^^^M cept to skim over the work, encourages a 

slovenly style of working, and the result 
lacks the sharp accuracy of good work. 
Do the work right and you will need but 
little sandpaper, except in a few special 
operations. Avoid using it until all cut- 
ting with the tools is done, if possible, 
for the grit dulls the tools. Sandpaper 
with the grain, except for work 
which is to be painted. 

The fineness of sandpaper is indicated by numbers — 00 (the finest), o, 
5, I, 1 2, 2, 23, and 3 (the coarsest). A size coarser than I3 is seldom 
needed. For most work a sheet can be torn into four parts, by means of 
any straight edge. 

For a fiat surface fold the sandpaper over a fiat block of cork or 
wood perhaps 4" or 5" long, 3" or 4" wide, and i'' thick (Fig. 205), 
with the edges slightly rounded. After using the block, finish with 
the paper in the hand (Fig. 206). For an edge the block should be 
narrower than the edge (Fig. 207). If the surface be curved, a block 
curved correspondingly should be used. A piece of thick rubber or 
leather which can be bent is good for curved surfaces. 




Fig. 205 



Common Tools and Their Uses 



79 



Care should be taken not to round the corners and edges of the 
work, since the paper cuts more near an edge than on the middle of 





Fig. 206 



Fig. 207 



a surface. To avoid rounding the angles when the paper is used in 
the hand, hold it as in Figs. 208 and 209. In sandpapering delicate 





Fig. 208 Fig. 209 

work, when the edge might be rounded or the surface scratched by 



8o 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 




even the finest sandpaper, as in rubbing down finished work (see 
Finishing, page i88), split the paper by removing the outer layer 

when the part to which the sand 
adheres will be more flexible. 
Sandpaper can be dampened on 
the back to soften it. 

Small pieces of wood can often 
be sandpapered best by rubbing 
them carefully on the sandpaper. 
To sandpaper a small end, lay 
the paper on a flat surface, hold 
the piece of wood upright, with the 
hand close to the sandpaper 
and push the piece steadily for- 
ward (Fig. 210). Raise it from 
the paper on the backward stroke and push forward again. After 
a few strokes reverse the piece and push forward with the other edge 
in advance, and so on. To sandpaper an inner corner fold the paper 
and push it into the angle. In sandpapering round pieces like cylin- 
ders, sandpaper less, and more carefully, at the ends than else- 
where, or like other edges and corners they will be cut away too 
much. Faces or surfaces which come together to form joints 

should not be sand- 

papered. 

For sandpapering round- 
ed edges, etc., seepage 161. 
See also Sattdpapering- 
machines, page no. 



Fig. 210 



m 



Fig. 211 



Long, fine steel shavings called Steel-wool can be used for cleaning 
off paint and such work, but should not be used until all work with the 
edge-tools is done, because of the particles of metal. 

78. The Work-bench. — There are many kinds, some with metal 
frames, but the general type is the same. For home use, a simple 



Common Tools and Their Uses 8i 

carpenter's bench, easily made, can be used (Fig. 211), but those 




Fig. 212 

made for cabinet-makers and for school use are much better (Figs. 212 
and 213).' 

In many the back part of 
the bench-top is an inch or so 
lower than the front, with a 
strip at the back edge and 
sometimes at each end, form- 
ing a tray (Fig. 213), where 
tools, small pieces of work, 
etc., can remain while in use, 
keeping the front part clear 
for actual operations. The 
front part of the top should 
be of hard wood and is best 
built of selected strips glued 
and bolted together. The 
practical workman usually 
prefers a plain simple bench. 
There is no danger of a bench 
being too strong and solid, 

' By permission of Messrs. Hammacher, Schlemmer, and Co., New York. 
6 




Fig. 213 



82 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 



and it should be firmly bolted to the floor, 
venient to have it adjustable in height. • 



For school use it is con- 




79. Bench-stop. — There is nothing better than the old-fashioned 

form shown in Fig. 214, which will not damage the work or the tools, 

and is easily raised or lowered. 

80. The Bench-vise. — The 

work should be clamped in the 

vise only tightly enough to keep 

it from slipping. If a piece has 

to be held with considerable 

force in one side of the vise only, 

put a piece of waste wood of the 

same thickness in the other side 

(Fig. 163), to prevent straining 

the vise and to hold the wood 
Fig. 214 

with even pressure. 

There are excellent bench-vises (preferably with jaws of wood), and 
also with a "quick-action" or "instantaneous-grip." These are good, 
but are not necessary, and some think a common wooden vise better for 
the beginner. Some also prefer a bench without a tail-vise ^ for the beginner, 
on the ground that he should learn to keep the work steady without it, but 
a tail- vise is certainly very useful, and almost essential, in many cases. 

81. Horses or Trestles are to lay stock on for marking or sawing, 
to put large vv'ork together on, and for similar uses (Fig. 191). Keep 
the tops smooth and clean, for hardened glue or varnish will deface 
nice work. See also page 242. 

' The height should be such that the workman's right elbow, when holding the plane, 
is slightly bent and his back about straight (Fig. 127). If much too low, the work can 
not be managed well, the workman's back will get tired, and he may become round-shoul- 
dered. If much too high, it will be hard to manage the work, the planing can not be so well 
done, and the arms will become tired. A bench for carpentry is usually rather lower than 
for cabinet- or pattern-making, while a carver's bench is usually higher. 

2 The vise (with a stop) at the right-hand end of the bench, used for holding work 
flat on the bench-top against one of the stops (Fig. 214). 



Common Tools and Their Uses 



83 



82- The Bench -hook (Figs. 79 and 124), holds small work 
firmly for sawing, planing, etc., and also saves marring the bench-top. 
It is placed on the bench as in Fig. 213, or one of the cleats can be 
screwed in the vise. For its use, see pages 21 and 40.. 

About 15" long by 6" wide is a convenient size. The cross-cleats 
should be screwed on and should be square with the right-hand edge of the 
board. If one cleat is short as in Fig. 215, it will save marring the bench 

in sawing. A kerf is sometimes 

made in the cleat for sawing 

at right angles (Fig. 216) and 

also at a mitre. See also 

page 85. 





Fig. 215 



Fig. 216 



83 The Shooting-board or 
Jack-board is for jointing, 
and for squaring edges and small surfaces and ends with the plane, — and 
is particularly useful for short, thin stock. Lay the board to be jointed 
on the raised part of the shooting-board with the edge projecting. 




Fig. 217 



84 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 



Hold it firmly with the left hand. Use the plane on its side on the 
lower part of the shooting-board (Fig. 217). Thus the cutting-edge 
of the plane is approximately at right angles with the surface of the 

board, and the edge 
will be planed as 
nearly square across 
as the accuracy of the 
apparatus will allow. ^ 
The shooting-b o a r d 
should be fastened 
on the bench as shown. 
One of two pieces to 
be jointed for gluing 
can be turned over, 
as described on page 
49. See Jointing, 
page 47 and Bench- 
hook, page 83. 





Fig. 219 



A jack-board can be of any wood which holds its shape well. Clear 
white pine or mahogany is good. The stock must be planed free from 
winding. Two forms are shown 
in Figs. 218 and 219. The con- 
struction is plain, but careful 
work is necessary. Approximate 
dimensions are suggested, Fig. 
218 being made of 3^" and 3^" 
stock, and Fig. 219 of |" and h " 
stock. Screw the pieces to- 
gether from the under side. The 
stop or cleat should be at right 
angles to the nearer edge. In 
Fig. 218 the top board overlaps 
the ends of the cleats a trifle, 
which (with the spaces between the cleats) allows the escape of the 

'See footnote, page 41. 




Fig. 220 



Common Tools and Their Uses 



85 



shavings. Chute-boards are also made of metal, and are of course more 
accurate. 

A mitre-shooting-hoard or jack-board (Fig. 220) is also useful. The 
angular stop or stops must be fitted to make the angles exactly 45°. A 




4r 




Fig. 221 



Fig. 222 



Fig. 223 



sawed mitre holds glue better than a planed mitre, but trimming with the 
plane is often required. 

84. Mitre-box.- — An iron mitre-box which will cut at various 
angles is the best. See also Mitre - shooting - board, above, and 
Trimmers, page 61, 

Great care is necessary to make an accurate wooden mitre-box (Fig. 
221). Pine or beech is good. Do not use spruce or any wood liable to 
warp or twist. Square a line, m n (Fig. 222) across the top side of the bottom 
piece, before putting together ; and lay off from one end of this line a point 
a on the edge, at a distance equal to the width of the bottom, thus fixing 
the points m, n, and 0. Next fasten on the sides, square upright lines on 
the inside of one side from the 
point m and on the inside of 
the other from the point 0. The 
diagonal line p q (Fig. 223) will 
represent the mitre. 

The kerf for the saw to run in 
should be made with a back-saw 




Fig. 224 



or a panel-saw. In a similar manner square on the inside two upright lines 
opposite each other, draw a line across the tops of the sides to meet these 
lines, and make a kerf, as shown by the middle line in Fig. 221, for sawing 
squarely across. Fig. 224 shows a mitre-board for sawing strips, mouldings, 



86 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 



and the like. Be sure the surfaces and edges are true and square. A good 
size is from i' to 2' long and 6" wide (in all). The lower piece can be of 
I" stock, but the upper one should be i]/^" to i%" thick. Mark the lines 
first on the bottom of the upper piece, then on the edges, and lastly on 





Fig. 225 



Fig. 226 



the top, as with the mitre-box just shown, so that they will be at the correct 
angles with the surfaces against which the wood to be sawed will rest. A 
good form, readily held in the bench-vise, is shown in Fig. 225. 

85. Bead-cutters and reed-scrapers 
and fluters can be bought of various pat- 
terns. It is usually best to stop reeding a 
short distance from the ends of a surface, 
and with the chisel cut the reeds to a 
square end (Fig. 226). 

Fig. 227 shows an easily made tool for scrap- 
ing beading, reeds, and the like. The blade, 
Fig- 227 made of a piece of saw-blade steel, is filed 

to the shape required. The hole in the 
blade is larger than the screw to allow of adjustment. This tool is pushed 
forward with both hands. 




86. Winding- sticks (which are simply straight-edges), are to 



Common Tools and Their Uses 



87 



help in getting surfaces true, and to determine whether different parts 
of the work are in the same plane. Take two straight-edges, each of 
equal width throughout, and lay them on edge, one across each end 





Fig. 228 



Fig. 229 



of the surface to be tested. Stand back and look across the top edge 
of one to the top edge of the other. If these are in line there is no 
winding where the straight-edges are placed (Fig. 228). By putting 
them in different positions it can be determined whether the whole 
surface is true. Two framing squares can often be used as in Fig. 
229, which shows the surface to be winding. 



C 



TRUE 



WINDING 

Fig. 230 



It is more accurate to use straight-edges longer than the width of the 
surface to be tested, as any warping or winding will be more easily seen 
(Fig. 230). If the upper edges of the sticks are 
thin, or "feather-edged," it is easier to tell when 
they are in line, but common straight-edges are 
sufficient for ordinary work. 

To make a chair or table, for example, stand 
evenly, turn it over, lay straight-edges on the ends 
of the legs, and sight across (Fig. 231). Then trim 
one or two legs until the straight-edges are in line. 
page 256. 



For other methods, see 



88 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 



87. Vise for Metal. — Every woodworking shop should have a vise 
for holding metal, as those for woodworking should not be used for 

metal, and also a good wrench, a pair 
of pliers or pincers, cutting nippers, 
and files for metal. (See page 77.) 
Shears for metal and a hack-saw are 
sometimes useful. 

88. An Anvil is often of use and is 
sometimes combined with a vise. It 
should have a flat steel surface and 
also a tapering point or "round 
horn." 
89. A solid Chopping-block — a section of a tree-trunk — is often 
convenient. 




Fig. 231 



WOODWORKING MACHINES 



All who work in wood, even if they do not use machinery them- 
selves, should be familiar with the general principles on which the 
machines work and should know what they can do. 

To use woodworking machinery properly and safely the pupil 
shoiild learn, under competent supervision rather than from a book, 
the principle, construction, and care of each machine, the meaning, 
use, and relation of all the parts. Each machine must be kept in good 
order, properly adjusted, properly lubricated, and the cutting-edges 
sharp. Also, while using a machine, the operator must attend strictly 
to what he is doing and to nothing else, or there may be an accident. 
This can not be impressed too strongly upon him, or upon others who 
might interrupt him or distract his attention. 

There are so many designs and arrangements for each kind of 
machine that they cannot be described in detail, and the special 
study of such machines as are in use in each workshop must be made 
from the machines themselves. Combination machines often save 
expense and space; but if they are much used it wastes time to keep 



Common Tools and Their Uses 



89 



changing the adjustments, and delay is caused by waiting for one's 
turn. It is better to have separate machines for each purpose if they 
can be afforded. Independent motors for each machine have some 
obvious advantages. 

The most important machines for general woodworking are the 
Circular-saw, Band-saw, Planer, Jointer, Moulder, Boring-machine, 
Mortising-machine, Tenoning-machine, Jig-saw, and Turning-lathe. 
There are other machines for various purposes. ^ 




Fig. 232 



90. The Circular-saw is the most generally useful machine, and 
the rapidly revolving saw cuts with speed, ease, and accuracy. 
Large circular-saws are used for sawing logs. In the smaller sizes 
for shop-work the saw projects through a bench or table-top (Fig. 
232) on which the wood to be cut rests. As both splitting and cross- 
cutting saws are used, most of the common operations of hand-sawing 
can be done with the circular-saw, and also many special operations. 
Adjustable guides or gauges are fitted to the saw-bench top so that 
different lengths, widths, and angles can be cut. Fig. 232 is a typical 
illustration of a modern circular-saw bench. Fig. 233 shows the 

' The illustrations of power woodworking machinery are inserted by permission of 
Messrs. Baxter D. Whitney and Son, Winchendon, Massachusetts, and the Oliver Ma- 
chinery Co., Grand Rapids, Michigan; and those of foot-power machines by permission 
of the W. F. and John Barnes Co., Rockford, Illinois, and Messrs. J. M. Marston and Co., 
Boston, Massachusetts. 



90 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 




gauges. That on the further side is for splitting, and those on the 
nearer side are for cross-cutting, either at right angles or at different 

degrees. Fig. 234 shows a 
convenient form which car- 
ries two saws at once. 
Either can be quickly raised 
for use. Such machines have 
many convenient adjust- 
ments. A great variety of 
work can be done, however, 
with a saw-bench which has 
only the simple splitting and 
cross - cutting gauges, and 
illustrations 235 to 261 are 
taken with an inexpensive 
saw-bench to show the great 
usefulness of such ma- 
chines where more ex- 
pensive machinery is 
not available. 

The circular splitting- 
saw cuts on the same 
principle as the hand 
splitting-saw (see page 
25), although the teeth 
are of ten "swaged" (see 
page 138). As the saw 
revolves toward the 
operator, it must be 
fitted on the arbor so 
that the teeth on top 
point toward the front 
of the bench (Fig. 232). 
The cross-cutting saw also works on the same principle as the hand- 




'-33 



Common Tools and Their Uses 



91 



saw. See pages 22-25. Either the saw-bench top, or the saw itself, 
is made to raise or lower, so that the saw may project above the 





Fig. 235 



bench-top as much or as little as may be required. It cuts best 
when it projects only enough to cut through the piece to be sawed 
(Fig. 237). Always put the saw on with the maker's name on top, 
to reduce to the minimum 
the variations due to ir- 
regularities and to wear. 

To split a piece roughly 
the wood can be guided 
by hand while the line is 
followed by eye (Fig. 235), 
but for all accurate work 
the gauge should be used 
(Fig. 239) Advance the 
wood evenly and lightly. 
Do not force it against the Fig. 236 

saw. Raise the end of a 

long board very slightly above the level of the bench-top at first. To 
stop splitting instantly, or to remove the board instantly, raise the 
end you hold, so that the wood will clear the saw (Fig. 236). 

Hold a short piece carefully as in Fig. 237, always keeping the 
hands in front of the saw — between the saw and yourself — or well 




92 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 




Fig. 237 



to one side. As the motion of the saw is toward the operator the 
hands cannot be drawn toward it while they are kept in front; but 

if they are behind the saw or too 
close to the sides of it and any- 
thing happens there is great dan- 
ger that they may be drawn 
against the teeth. Any attempt 
to escape or to remove the hands 
will be futile, for the motion of 
the saw is much quicker than any 
possible muscular movement. 
Many accidents come from care- 
lessness in this respect. Another 
person may hold the ends of a diffi- 
cult piece after it has passed a safe distance beyond the saw. If the 
wood binds on the saw it can be wedged at a safe distance behind 
the saw, as in hand-sawing (Fig. 74), but do not reach over the saw 
to do this, unless you have first stopped the machine. An attach- 
ment can be used behind the saw to prevent the wood binding. 

At the end of the cut the pieces 
must be so pushed along that they 
are kept clear of the teeth at the 
further side of the saw (Fig. 238), 
or there may be trouble. If a piece 
is to be brought to the front of 
the saw again for further sawing, 
bring it around at either side of 
the saw, — never above it, for if it 
should fall upon the saw-teeth it 
might be hurled at you with force 
enough to inflict a serious or even 
fatal injury. When the saw-teeth fairly get hold of a piece in this 
way it will be moved toward the operator at a speed equal to that at 
which the periphery of the saw is moving, — perhaps from 5000 to 




Fig. 238 



Common Tools and Their Uses 



93 





Fig. 239 



Fig. 240 



10,000 feet a minute. Guards can be fastened to a saw-bench to 
protect the operator. A piece of plank is often suspended over a saw 
to prevent danger from flying pieces. 

To saw accurately with the splitting-saw one edge of the piece 
must be straight and kept against the 
splitting-gauge (Fig. 239), which can 
be adjusted at any required distance 
from the saw. When reaching the end 
of the cut, if there be a space of several 
inches between the saw and the gauge 
the piece on that side of the saw can 
be safely pushed through with the 
hand, provided two or three fingers are 
hooked over the top of the gauge, so 
that, if anything happens, the hand 
will instinctively cling to the gauge 
and thus be kept from being drawn 
against the saw-teeth (Fig. 239). If 
the space be narrow, push the piece Fig. 241 




94 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 




Fig. 242 



through with a stick notched at the end as in Fig. 240. Push 

the piece clear through. Do not reach over after it. To split a 

piece which is too thick for the 
saw, saw one-half way through 
on one side, turn the piece over 
and saw through the remaining 
thickness. 

If necessary to use an irregular 
edge against the gauge, a straight- 
edged piece, o f equal width 
throughout, can be placed on 
the side toward the gauge and 
both pushed through together 
(Fig. 241). In machines made 
to do a variety of work the 

splitting-gauge can be tipped for cutting bevels. ^ 

To saw across the grain use the cross-cutting saw, and also the 

cross-cutting gauge, which slides back and forth at right angles to 

the saw. Hold the wood firmly 

against the gauge (Fig. 242). 

If the piece to be cut off is long 

enough to require being held by 

the hand, simply steady it with- 
out pushing, lest the wood close 

on the saw (Fig. 242). Cross- 
cutting gauges are also adjustable 

to cut at any angle. Some gauges 

have an adjustment or "stop" 

for use when a number of pieces 

are to be cut of the same length, or a stick with a shoulder at the 




Fig- 243 



' In splitting with the gauge tipped at a bevel, the piece often tends to sHp away from 
the gauge at the angle where the gauge and bench-top meet. To prevent this another 
gauge can be fitted on the other side of the saw. If the machine has but one gauge, another 
can easily be made of wood for this purpose. 



Common Tools and Their Uses 



95 



end can be attached (Fig. 243). A stop can also be attached to the 
spHtting-gauge to regulate the length of pieces to be cut with the 
cross-cutting gauge (Fig. 244).' 





Fig. 244 



Fig. 245 



To cut a rabbet, lower the saw, or raise the bench-top, until the 
splitting-saw projects above the top just the depth of the rabbet. Then 
set the splitting-gauge at the width of the rabbet and make a kerf (Fig. 
245). Cut the other side of the rabbet in the same way (Fig. 246). 
If the rabbet is to be cut across the end, use the cross-cutting saw 
and the cross-cutting or the splitting-gauge, as the case may require. 





Fig. 246 



Fig. 247 



' The splitting-gauge itself can be used as a stop, but a piece attached as in Fig. 244 
is sure to give the wood clearance. 



96 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking^ 





Fig. 248 



Fig. 249 



To cut a groove, make a kerf at each side 

of the groove (Fig. 247), and remove the 

wood between by a series of parallel kerfs 

(Fig. 248). When much grooving is to be 

done, the saw can be "wabbled. " For this 

a thick saw must be 

used, as a thin one 

will not be stiff 

enough. Make a pair 

of thin wedge-shaped 

collars of wood (Fig. 

249), and place one on 

each side of the saw, so that they point in opposite directions (Fig- 

250). Thus the saw will no longer be at right angles to the arbor 

on which it revolves, and the cutting-edge will wabble from side to 

side and make a 
wide kerf (Fig. 
251). The width 
of cut depends 
upon the slant of 
the collars, and 
can also be alter- 
ed by changing 
their relative po- 
sitions. Test with 
a piece of waste 
wood and alter 
the collars until 
the width of the groove is right. ' Thick saws are made for grooving 

' A simpler way is to fold up the necessary thickness of cardboard or some similar 
substance (Fig. 252), and insert equal thicknesses above and below (Fig. 253). This 
ensures tightness and stiffness of the saw, as the hardest cutting is done with the teeth 
which are on top and beneath when the saw is being adjusted. After the saw is fastened 
in place, a little tightening with the wrench will compress the pasteboard wedges more and 
thus alter the width of the cut. 



■iti 




Fig. 250 



Fig. 251 



Common Tools and Their Uses 



97 



(without wabbling), and special cutters are made for grooving and 
a great variety of similar work. Although convenient, these are not 
necessary for common work. Dadoes, 
grooves across the grain, are cut in the 
same way, with the cross-cutting saw 
or with the cutters made for the pur- 
pose. The cross-cutting saw can also 
sometimes be used for grooving and 

rabbeting lengthways in 

fine, light work, where an 

especially smooth kerf is 

desired, and in other 

splitting operations in 

light work. 

To cut a rabbet or 
groove which does not extend to the edge or end of a piece, as in 
the "styles," or lengthways parts of a frame like that shown in Fig. 
214, first adjust the saw to cut the required depth, then clamp blocks 





Fig. 252 



Fig. 253 





Fig- 254 



Fig. 255 



98 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 




SHHHBBIIlBHWBBBwBB^^^^^MB M il llM w^m-arB 




Fig. 256 

Upon the bench-top so that the 
wood cannot be pushed further 
forward or backward than is neces- 
sary to make the rabbet of the 
length required (Fig. 254) . Hold the 
piece firmly, place the end against 
the nearer block, and carefully low- 
er it upon the saw (Fig. 254), until 
it lies flat upon the bench- top. Push 
it along against the gauge until it 
reaches the further block (Fig. 255). 
Then carefully raise the nearer end and remove the piece (Fig. 256) . ' 
The ends must be trimmed to shape by hand. 

' Such rabbets can be gauged by marking on the upper surface of the wood opposite 
the ends of the projected rabbet, and also on the gauge, or on the bench-top, opposite the 
points where the edge of the saw rises above the bench-top when adjusted to cut the re- 
quired depth (Fig. 257). Then place the piece so that the further marks agree, lower it 
upon the saw and push it along until the nearer marks are opposite one another. But it is 
safer to use a block at each end. Such rabbets can be cut with a moulding-machine, and 
also on the circular-saw bench with a cutter of the required shape or by wabbling the saw. 




Fig. 257 



Common Tools and Their Uses 



99 



Mouldings and other odd-shaped pieces can, if necessary, be 
"roughed out" or worked approximately to shape with the circular- 
saw (Fig. 258), the final trimming and smoothing being done by hand. 
Cutter heads, to substitute for the saw for such work, are made in a 
great variety of shapes. 




Fig. 258 




Fig. 260 




Fig. 259 




Fig. 261 



To cut a piece tapering, fit it into a notch of corresponding shape 
cut in the edge of a straight-edged piece, and push both through 
together (Fig. 259). 



100 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 



To cut a tenon, the process is similar to that in cutting a rabbet. 
Cut crossways as in Fig. 260, and lengthways as in Fig. 261. 

To make joint-edges — for glue-joints — the saw should be fine 
and in the best condition. The minute roughnesses left by a fine 
saw assist the glue to hold, and as inconspicuous and strong joints as 
possible can be quickly made by a competent workman with a suitable 




Fig. 262 



saw. As the edge used against the gauge must be straight it is well 
to first joint the other edge with the saw. Then reverse the piece and 
joint the edge which is to be glued, to remove any slight irregularity 
left by the plane, reversing the edges more than once if necessary. 
The saw must be very sharp for this work. 
See Sharpening, page 136. 

Foot- (and hand-) power machines (Figs. 262 and 263) are very useful 
when the usual power-driven ones are not available. Such comparatively 



Common Tools and Their Uses 



lOI 



inexpensive machines 
may not do so accurate 
and varied work, nor do 
it so quickly, as the 
most costly power-ma- 
chines, but they will do 
good work for ordinary 
cases, within the limits 
of their capacity, and are 
to be recommended 
when power-machinery is 
out of the question. It 
should be borne in mind 
that no power is gained 
by foot-power machines 
— that no greater force 
can be used than is 
supplied by the operator. 
Therefore if thick wood, 
or hard wood, is used the 




Fig. 263 




Fig. 264 



operator must not expect the work to be easy. 
The power is simply applied more advanta- 
geously than by hand. It is particularly essen- 
tial that a foot-power saw be kept sharp, for the 
operator has no great reserve of force to drive 
a dull saw through the wood. Foot-power ma- 
chines are safer than the others, because the saw 
does not run so powerfully, and usually not so 
continuously, and there is no belting or shafting. 
It requires more skill to run a thin saw than a 
thick one. Small power-saws should be run faster 
than large ones, that is, should make more revolu- 
tions in a minute. It is important that saws be 
run at the correct speed, which can be found by 
consulting tables for the purpose. 

91. Swing-saws are often used for cutting 
off stock, particularly when many pieces are to 



102 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 



be of equal length. An ordinary cross-cutting circular-saw runs at the 
lower end of a frame which is usually suspended from the ceiling (Fig. 
264), so that the saw can be swung across the bench upon which the 
wood to be cut is placed. Care must be used to avoid accident. 



92. The Band-saw. — As this 
saw (Fig. 265) cuts continuous- 
ly while the jig-saw (Fig. 272) 
cuts only on the down-stroke, 
the advantage of the band-saw 
in saving time is obvious. Its 
motion is also smoother, but it 
is harder to take care of. The 
correct degree of tightness for 
the saw can be told by testing 
with the hand below the upper 
wheel, before the saw is started. 
This cannot be learned from a 
book, but it must be right. The 
saw must be fairly tight, but not 
overstrained. It should be loose 
enough that when the hand is 
applied near the guide (Fig. 266) 
the saw can be freely pulled a lit- 
tle way toward the operator. This guide for the saw can be raised or 
lowered as the work may require. The saw must run evenly and be 
free from vibration. Do not reach around the saw while it is in 
motion to adjust anything. The table can be adjustable for sawing 
at an angle. Splitting-gauges and other attachments are sometimes 
used. An experienced workman can, if necessary, do a great variety 
of work with a band-saw, but skilful use of this machine must be 
learned by experience. The width of saw should be adapted to the 
work. While large sweeping curves (Fig. 267) can be cut with a wide 
saw, quick curves (Fig. 268) require a narrow saw to cut them properly. 




tig. 265 



Common Tools and Their Uses 



103 



Do not crowd the 
wood against the saw, 
but hold it lightly and 
easily, simply guiding 
it (Fig. 269). If the 
wood closes behind the 
saw, do not try to get 
it free by pulling it 
toward you, for you 
may pull the saw off 
the wheel. Stop the 
machine, open the kerf, 
and withdraw the 
wood. Care should 
be taken not to try to 
cut curves too sharp 
for the saw, and also Fig. 266 

not to turn too abrupt- 
ly. Where the surface must be left as smooth as possible, saw with 
the grain of the piece to be kept (Fig. 267). 

If necessary to cut a quick curve with a saw too wide for it, cut as 
nearly to the required curve as free and easy running of the saw will allow, 






Fig. 267 



Fig. 268 



104 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 




and then work by short cuts up to the Hne (Fig. 270) ; but this is not to 
be advised and the curve will not be so smooth as when cut with 

a saw of suitable width. 
A good foot- and hand- 
power band-saw (Fig. 271) 
will do excellent work up 
to the limit of its capacity, 
where power-machinery is 
not available. Large band- 
saws are used for sawing 
logs, and less wood is wast- 
ed than by the circular- 
saw, as the kerf is 
narrower. 

Fig. 269 93- The Jig-saw i s 

now practically super- 
seded by the band-saw except for "inside" or "coring" work. It is, 
however, simpler, safer, easier to use and to keep in order than the 
circular-saw or even the band-saw, and is therefore for some rea- 
sons the best machine to begin with. The 
foot-power jig-saw (Fig. 272) is the safest of 
all for younger pupils. The mechanism of 
the different jig- or scroll - sawing machines 
varies, but the principle of a narrow saw- 
blade running up and down is the same in all. 
For common work a saw-blade }/^' wide will 
usually do, but for fine work and quick curves 
smaller sizes must be used (Figs. 268 and 
270). It must be put in with the teeth point- 
ing downward, so as to cut on the down- 
stroke (Fig. 273). The proper degree of ten- 
sion for the blade cannot be described. The saw must not be at all 
slack, but tightly strained, — not however overstrained, or something 
may break. 




Fig. 270 



Common Tools and Their Uses 



105 



The hands should not be kept very near the saw, as in case of its 
catching a cut may result. Also, if a saw breaks, the upper end may 

come down. on the hand. The 
wood should not be forced 
against the saw, but advanced 
only as fast as the saw will 
cut easily and freely, and 
without being bent in any di- 




Fig. 271 



Fig. 272 



rection. The wood should not be held down hard on the table, but 
handled lightly and easily. The general principle of sawing is similar 
to that with the band-saw (page 102). Care must be taken not to turn 
the wood too quickly, for it may catch and the saw or the work be 
injured. See also under Band-saw, page 103. 

To saw holes — "inside" or "coring" work — a hole must first 



io6 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 




Fig. 273 



be bored to admit the saw (Fig. 273). The table can be adjustable 

for sawing at an angle. 

94. The Planer is highly important in saving time, but as stock 

can be bought already 
planed and necessary plan- 
ing can usually be done at 
a near-by mill for a small 
sum, the planer can be 
omitted from a limited 
outfit much better than 
the circular-saw o r t h e 
jointer, although it is an 
important part of a com- 
plete equipment. In the 
''single surfacer" (Fig, 
274) the wood is moved 
along over the smooth 

bed of the machine by means of "feed rolls" with corrugated surface, 

and passed under a rapidly revolving cylinder to which cutters or 

knives are bolted (Fig. 275). 

These knives plane the sur- 
face (Fig, 276). There should 

be freedom from vibration, 

the feed must be steady, and 

the knives must describe a 

small circle at high speed to 

ensure the best work. The 

knives have pieces of steel 

fitted to them, on a similar 

principle to the cap of an or- Fig. 274 

dinary hand plane-iron (Fig. 

276 and page 36), so closely that chips cannot be forced between them. 

With a "double surfacer" the upper and lower sides are both planed 

at once, and machines are made which plane all four surfaces at once. 




Common Tools and Their Uses 



107 



The thickness of the planing is regulated by raising or lowering 
the table on which the wood is carried along. If a piece is to be made 




Fig. 275 



much thinner, it is passed through the planer several times. To pre- 
vent as much as possible subsequent warping, plane equal amounts 
from each side (see page 209). The 
common planer makes the surface 
smooth, but does not true it. If a 
piece be warped before planing, it will 
be warped afterwards, although slight 
irregularities will be removed,' 
Therefore, when accurate work is de- 
sired, make one side as true as possi- 
ble before planing. The knives or 
cutters (Fig. 276) make the little 
waves or undulations seen in machine-planed stock (Fig. 277).^ 
These planer-marks must be removed by hand for all nice work. 

» The old-fashioned Daniels's planer makes the stock true, but as it is slow and the 
surface is left very slightly rough, it is superseded, except where especial accuracy is 
required. Figs. 274-276 show a Whitney planer. 

' These undulations correspond to the distance between the strokes of the knives. 




Fig. 276 



io8 



A Shorter Course in Woodworkino^ 




Planers are made of various sizes. A small or pony planer is good for 

small work, and is useful as an auxiliary machine. A piece can be planed 

, o f tapering thickness b y 

placing it on top of another 
piece having the required 
degree of taper, and running 
both through together. A 
stick can be made octagonal 
by placing it in a cradle or 
Fig- 277 form, as in Fig. 453, and run- 

ning both through together. 

95. The Jointer or "Buzz" planer is a very important machine 
(Fig. 278). It is used for planing edges and narrow stock, and pieces 
not too large can be trued and squared on it. The wood is held against 
the gauge and passed over the table 
by hand so that the revolving 
cutters (which are similar to those 
of the large planers) plane the 
under side of the wood. The 
knives are more or less exposed, 
and great care must be used. The 
jointer is often used to make glue- 
joints. It must be kept carefully 
adjusted for accurate work. The 
gauge is adjustable to plane bevels. ^ 



96. Moulding-machines are either 
horizontal or irregular. The former 
can be used for such work as getting 
out matched boards, straight beading 




Fig. 278 ' 



Therefore small diameter, rapid revolution, and steadiness of the cutter-head, with steadi- 
ness of feed, and firm holding of the stock, are essential to making this waviness as slight 
as possible. 

' It can also be used for chamfering, beveling, rabbeting, tonguing, and grooving, 
beading, and moulding in various ways, tenoning, etc., by the use of different adjustments 
and cutters. 



Common Tools and Their Uses 



109 




or reeding, "sticking" strips of moulding, and the like. The stock is passed 
through the machine as with a planer. 

The irregular moulder (Fig. 279) cuts the edge of woodwork in any- 
desired shape for which 
knives can be fitted. 
The knives or cutters 
(of which there is a 
great variety of pat- 
terns) are fastened to 
the spindles which pro- 
ject above the table and 
revolve very rapidly. 
The wood is moved 
along against the spin- , 
die and shaped by the Fig. 279 

revolving k n i v e s . A 

first-class machine will mould the wood in any direction of the grain and 

leave the surface so 
smooth that no further 
finishing is required. A 
moulder is not a machine 
for the novice to experi- 
ment with. 

97. Scraping- ma- 
chines (Fig. 280) are 
valuable where much 
nice work is done. The 
'boards are run through 
as through a planer and 
are given an even surface 
and satin-like finish. The 
principle is the same as 
that of the hand-scraper 
(page 61). Fig. 281 
shows the edge of a 
Whitney scraper after it has been turned by the burnisher, and Fig. 282 a 
toothing-knife which can be used instead of the scraper. 




Fig. 280 



no 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 



98. Boring-machines are useful where 
much boring is 





Fig. 281 
by foot-power. 



Fig. 282 



done. A boring 

attachment to a 

circular-saw ma- 
chine will do in 

ordinary cases, 

and there are 

many independent 

b o r i n g-machines 

made. Their use 

is easily learned. 
99. Mortising- 

machines are in 

common use, and 

are often driven 
The principle is similar to that of cutting mortises by 
hand, but the work can be done more easily 
and quickly (Fig. 283 — Barnes). 

100. Tenoning-machines (Fig. 284 — Barnes) 
also save time and labor. See also page 100. 
loi. Sandpapering machines, through 
which boards are run as through a planer, 
give a smooth and even surface (though 
usually not to be compared with that pro- 
duced by a scraping-machine) but the grit 
quickly dulls tools used afterwards. Simple 
machines, shaped like a drum or a disk 
covered with sandpaper, against which the 
wood is held, have long been in use and can 
easily be contrived — also sanded belts for 
rounded surfaces. 



102. The Lathe. — Most woodworking 
j^., machines are of recent invention, but the 
lathe in its primitive forms dates from 
Fig. 283 antiquity. Woodturning is a trade in 




Common Tools and Their Uses 



III 



itself, and is much better learned from 
perienced tiirner than from a book. All 
however, understand the general 
and the elementary operations, which 
included in a general handbook. 
Turning requires concentrated at- 
tention and freedom from interrup- 
tion, both on account of the work 
and to avoid accident. Different 
turners frequently have different 
ways of doing work and there is 
much opportunity for thought in 
so handling the tools as to do the 
cleanest and best work in the least 
time. Therefore carefully observe 
the effect of holding the cutting 
edges in different positions so as to 
learn to do as much clean cutting, 
and as little scraping, as possible. 



a practical and ex- 
woodworkers should, 
principles of turning 
are all that can be 




Fig. 284 




Fig. 285 



Handle the tools lightly and freely. 
Do not press hard and long at any 
one spot, on account of the 
friction. 

For the common forms of turn- 
ing, the wood is held between two 
points or centres, and is rapidly 
revolved toward the turner, who 
holds the edge of a tool against 
it, and thus cuts it into the de- 
sired shape. Fig. 285 will serve 
as a typical illustration of a lathe, 
for, though the details of differ- 
ent machines may vary, the gen- 
eral principle is the same in all. 



112 



A Shorter Course in Woodworkinor 



One of the centres (the left in Fig. 286) between which the stick 
is -held, has spurs which enter the wood (Fig. 287), so that when 

this centre is re- 
CoAfs fatter 

T/G/^r ^A/o Loose fa u. era 



Coc/A/7-e/fs/¥^rr- 



volved the wood is 
also revolved. This 
is sometimes called 
the "live" centre. 
The other centre 
(Fig. 288) is merely 
to hold the other end 
of the wood in place 
and does not turn 
with it. This is 
sometimes called the 
"dead" centre. A 
movable tee-rest for 
the tool is fastened in 
front of the wood, so 
that the tool may be 
held securely and 
steadily (Fig. 286). 
Clear pine is the best wood to begin with, though whitewood or 
other similar wood will do. Select pieces free from cracks, checks, 
or shakes, which plight cause the wood to spHt while being turned. 



//eAO 
SrocH 




Cor/e fatter 

l/re CeA/r/re 
Tee fesr 



PeAo ^eA/r/9e 



Fig. 286 





f 



Fig. 289 



Fig. 288 



Fig. 290 Fig- 291 

When the belt is on the smallest step of the cone-pulley (Fig. 286) of 



Common Tools and Their Uses 113 

the lathe it will be on the largest step of the driving-pulley on the counter- 
shaft above. This gives the highest speed, for when a belt runs from a 
large wheel to a smaller the speed is increased in proportion to the sizes 
of the wheels. For the slowest speed put the belt on the smallest step 
of the countershaft pulley and the largest of the lathe pulley, for the speed 
is decreased when a small wheel is connected with a larger one. Small 
work requires a higher speed than large. 

To turn a cylinder. The tools needed are the turning gouge and 
the turning chisel. The gouge is usually ground with the edge rounded 
to correspond with the degree of curvature of the tool (Fig. 289). 
For roughing out, however, it is sometimes ground squarely across. 
The chisel is ground on both sides (Fig. 290) and is usually a skew- 
chisel also (Fig. 291). Experienced turners, however, are apt to grind 
with very little skew or squarely across. 

First, get out a piece of wood with the circular-saw about 2"x2"x 10''. ^ 
Find the centre of each end of the stick by drawing diagonals or 
by one of the other methods given on page 229. Put a few drops of 
oil on the end of the piece where the dead centre will be inserted. 
Move the tail-stock (Fig 286) up toward the head-stock until the 
wood is held between the two, centring it by the marks just made upon 
the ends.^ Screw up the tail-stock until the spurs of the live 
centre are firmly fixed in the wood and the dead centre also forced 
well into the end. The wood must revolve freely and at the same time 
be securely held. Adjust the top of the tee-rest to be about level with 
the centres (Fig. 285). •^ Fasten it as close to the wood as you can 
without danger of striking, before starting the lathe. Do not change 
it while the lathe is moving. 

' The exact size is immaterial, — 1%" square will do — but for the following elementary 
exercises this is a suitable size and can be economically cut from a 2" plank. 

^ The experienced turner centres small work by eye, gives the wood a few revolutions 
and, if necessary, makes a slight cut with a tool to detect any inaccuracy in the centring. 
By stopping the lathe and by tapping or a slight movement of the piece he adjusts it to 
run true. If the wood becomes overheated at any time, stop the lathe and oil again or 
loosen the wood slightly. Do not oil while the lathe is in motion. 

3 The rest can be a little below the centres for small work, but for large work should be 
somewhat above the centres. 



114 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 



Start the machine slowly.^ First rough out the work with the 
gouge held as in Fig. 292. The left hand can be held as shown, or 





Fig. 292 



Fig. 293 




underneath as in Fig. 296, and should bear firmly on the rest as well 
as hold the tool. Begin with the edge of the tool so placed that it 

would cut at a tangent (see page 116) to the 

upper part of the cylinder, as in Fig. 292. 

Then carefully raise the handle until the 

edge begins to cut. After 

dipping down into the 

wood in this way move 

the tool along a little and 

dip down again, making a 

succession of cuts as in 

Fig. 293. If the cuts are 

made nearer together the 

bulk of the corners will be 

roughed off. Then begin 

at the right-hand end and 
move the tool sideways back and forth along the stick until it becomes 
cylindrical. In smoothing with the gouge place the tool at first so that 
the basil and not the cutting-edge bears on the wood and then care- 
fully raise the right hand a very Httle until the edge begins to cut. 
The tool can be turned over slightly so as to cut with either side of 
the edge (Fig. 294) rather than with the extreme end, thus making a 





Fig. 294 



Fig. 295 



I The highest speed is usually right for these small elementary exercises. 



Common Tools and Their Uses 



115 




Fig. 296 



Fig. 297 



smooth shearing cut (see page 31). Test the diameter with 
caHpers, holding them Hghtly as in Fig. 295. Leave the piece 
a httle larger than required to allow for finishing with the chisel. 

Place the chisel as in Fig. 
^^■1^ 296, holding it on the rest 

^^JI^H^B with the left hand, so that 

^-«.^3. ^^ . _ the basil rests on the wood. 

The left hand is sometimes 
laid over the chisel in the 
position shown in Fig. 294. 
Then raise the handle 
slowly a very little until the edge begins to cut and move the tool 
steadily to the right, making a smooth shearing cut. Keep the basil 
bearing on the wood. It is well to keep the forefinger of the left 
hand hooked under the tee-rest, as this gives firm control of the tool 
(Fig. 297). Keep the upper point of the chisel clear above the wood. 
It is well to begin a little way from the end of the piece lest the edge 
of the tool catch. The tool can now be turned the other way and the 
cutting done in the opposite direction. As you thus trim to the exact 
diameter, test with calipers (Fig. 295). The hand is often held around 
the piece as in Fig. 298.' After moving the "shipper" or lever to 
stop the machine, lay the hand on the pulley 
1^; to bring it to a standstill, not on the wood. 

HHHhlR':.^ Fig. 299 is turned in a 

— ^^ similar manner. Rough to 

shape as already shown. 
Finish with the skew-chisel, 
working from the middle 
toward each end. 
To cut a cylinder with one or more steps. First turn a cylinder. 
Near the middle lay off a space, 2" for example, with rule and pencil 

' With long slender work a piece of leather wrapped around the hand will prevent 
burning and the tool can be held against a nick cut in the leather. A back-rest for the 
work to bear against is used for work which will spring much. 



Fig. 298 



Fig. 299 



Ii6 



A Shorter Course in Woodworkino^ 



(Fig. 300). Hold the chisel (skew or square-edged) as in Fig. 310, 
with the angle nearly touching the wood, raise the handle slightly 

and carefully so that 

the corner of the tool 

will dip down into the 

wood (Fig. 301) at 

each end of the 2" 

space and cut a groove 

about tV" deep. As 

there is but little 

wood to be removed 

it can be done with 

the chisel (Fig. 302). 

In cutting with the 

angle of the chisel next 
the shoulder, lower the handle slightly lest the tool cut too deeply. 




Fig. 300 




Fig. 301 




Fig. 302 




D CXD 



F=> 



Fig- 30: 



Fig. 304 



Next mark off spaces, as before (Fig. 303), of i3^" for example, and 
cut down just outside the lines with the parting tool (Fig. 304) held 






Fig. 305 



Fig. 306 



Fig. 307 



Common Tools and Their Uses 



117 



as in Fig. 305, to a depth of 3^''. Or cut a V-shaped groove with the 
chisel, first cutting straight down as in Fig. 306, and then slantingly 
as in Fig. 307. Turn to the required dimensions as before, first with 
the gouge, turning it when near the shoulder so that it will cut as in 
Fig. 308. Finish with the chisel as before. See that the ends of the 
shoulders are smoothed accurately to the lines with the chisel as 
in Fig. 306. It is well to practise with a variety of similar steps. 





Fig. 308 



Fig. 309 



Fig. 310 



The exact dimensions are not important, as the object of such exer- 
cises is to get a good working understanding of the process. 

To cut a half -bead (Fig. 309). After turning a cylinder, cut in 
with the chisel as in Fig. 310, and then, placing the tool as in Fig. 311 
(Fig. 302 shows the angle at which to hold it more clearly) , turn it to 
cut the half -bead, raising the handle gradually in a curve and pushing 
the tool forward as is necessary (Fig. 312). Remember to let the 





■^:^^8u.J^«**''^*4--«^^ 



Fig. 311 



Fig. 312 



Fig. 313 



basil bear on the wood as a guide. At the end try to cut one shaving 
from the whole surface. To cut a half-bead in the opposite direction, 
reverse the positions and movements. This exercise can well be 
repeated with half -beads of different sizes. 

To turn beads (Fig. 313). Lay out the spaces for the beads on a 
cyhnder with compasses (Fig. 314), or with rule and chisel, making 



Ii8 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 



a very slight cut.' Pencil marks can also be made for the centres of 
the beads. Cut down between the beads with the chisel as in Fig. 





Fig- 314 



Fig. 315 



Fig. 316 



310. Then proceed as in turning two half -beads. Practise with beads 
of different sizes and also try to make a row of uniform size. 

To cut off a cylinder or other shape at a given length. Lay off 




Fig. 317 





Fig. 318 



Fig. 319 




Fig. 320 



Fig. 321 



Fig. 322 



^ Where many pieces have to be marked aUke, a gauge can be made by driving brads 
in the edge of a strip of wood at the required points and sharpening the projecting ends. 
Holding this gauge lightly against the revolving wood will mark the spaces. 



Common Tools and Their Uses 



119 




Fig. 323 



Fig- 324 



the required length with rule and pencil, leaving a little space at each 
end, enough at the live end that the tools cannot strike the spur 
when cutting in. Cut in carefully with the parting tool a little out- 
side of the line marked or hold a }/i" 
scraping tool as in Fig. 305, with the 
basil down. Make 
successive cuts 
lightly to make the 
opening cut a little 
wider than the tool 
to avoid friction 
and continue until there is only enough wood left to avoid danger of 
breaking (Fig. 315). Or cut entirely with the turning chisel, first 
straight down (Fig. 316) and then slantingly (Fig. 317), thus making 
a V-shaped cut and trimming thin shavings from the end of the part 
to be kept until the line is reached and the piece almost cut through. 
To turn a tool handle, as in Fig. 318. First turn a cylinder 
roughly. After marking spaces, cut in or "size " down with the parting 
tool or chisel (the sizing tool, Fig. 319, is sometimes used for re- 
peated sizings) where the dimensions are naturally measured (Fig. 320). 
Use the calipers as in Fig. 321, with one end close to the cutting tool. 

When the calipers indicate the correct 
diameter stop cutting. Do the rest of 
the turning with gouge and chisel as al- 
ready described. Finally hold a small 
piece of folded sandpaper with the fore- 
finger and middle finger and move it 
rapidly back and forth over the surface 
Fig. 325 (Fig. 322). 

To cut concave curves or hollows (Fig, 
323). Turn a cylinder and mark the spaces, hold a small gouge 
horizontally and at right angles to the work (Fig. 324) and remove 
part of the wood, but keep well within the lines. Then hold the tool 
as in Fig. 325, with the basil bearing on the wood, and push it care- 



1^ 



120 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 




Fig. 326 



fully forward and upward, at the same time rolling it partly around 
and moving the handle toward the right or left as the cutting pro- 
ceeds, so that the gouge will work itself up out of the wood. At the 

end of the cut the tool should be in the 
position shown in Fig. 326. Next cut on 
the other side of the hollow in the same 
way, and continue cutting first on one side 
and then the other until the curve is cor- 
rect. By keeping the basil of the tool 
bearing on the wood as a guide a slight 
movement of the handle will cause the 
edge to cut all that is required, and the 
tool can be controlled so as to cut cleanly and without catching. 
Practise with hollows of different dimensions and try to make a series 
of uniform size and shape. 

To turn a combination of hollows and rounds, as in upper part of 
Fig. 327, cut the hollows first, as in the lower part of Fig. 327, 
and then the convex curves or beads. The sides of the hol- 
lows must be cut down straight for some distance to allow for 
the rounding of the beads. Round the beads with gouge or 
chisel. The chisel will give a finer surface but the gouge will 
cut quicker. The experienced turner will cut both rounds and 
hollows smoothly with the gouge. 

Simple forms, of various degrees of curvature and in an 
endless variety of combinations, are the elements of which 
the outlines of most turned objects are made up. 

To mark spaces where there are square members, or parts, as in 
Fig. 328, do this before setting the lathe in motion, squaring distinct 
pencil lines across one side of the piece (Fig. 329). Cut a groove at 
the ends of the square members (Fig. 330) or make deep V-shaped cuts 
with the chisel as already shown. Then round the corners of the square 
members as in Fig. 328, and proceed for this design as in Fig. 328. 

Sandpaper should not be used in the earlier exercises, as the pupil 
should learn to cut rather than scour the wood into shape. For 



MW 



Fig. 327 



Common Tools and Their Uses 



121 




Fig. 329 



'-^ 



^fttc- 



Fig. 328 



Fig. 330 




t 



ZZ 



ordinary work cut a small piece of sandpaper, double it and hold as 
in Fig. 322. Move it quickly back and forth 
to prevent scratching the work. In sandpaper- 
ing sharp curves or 
beads care must be 
taken not to injure the 
shape (Fig. 331). The 
surface can be further 
smoothed or polished 
with a handful of fine 
shavings and dust made 
by the turning. 

For many shapes, rosettes and cups for example, the wood must 
be fastened to the live spindle only. Small pieces can be screwed (by 

turning the lathe) to 
the centre screw of the 
face plate (Fig. 332), 
which is substituted 
for the spur centre 
used in the previous 
exercises. For large 
pieces screws are in- 
serted through holes 
in the face-plate. The 
tee-rest can be placed 
at right angles to the 
position already shown 
or at any angle re- 
quired. Because of 
the varying angles at 
which the grain of the 
wood meets the edge of 
the tool in such work, 
it is common to instruct that such turning be done with what are 



Fig. 331 



l^ 



IZ^ 



:::^ 



x^ 



D 





~^ 



Fig. 332 



Fig. 333 



122 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 



called "scraping tools" (Fig. 333), which are of various shapes and 
have the basil on one side only. They are held horizontally on the 
rest with the basil down. The skilful, experienced turner, how- 
ever, does the greater part of his turning with the regular tools al- 





Fig- 334 



Fig. 335 



ready mentioned and on the same general principles of cutting that 
have already been described, and uses the scraping tools only when 
necessary. The beginner should learn to do his work as much by 
clean cutting and as little by scraping as possible. There are, how- 
ever, some operations which can be done by scraping only. 





Fig. 336 



Fig. 337 



To turn a disk. Cut off the corners with a hand-saw or saw 
approximately to shape with the band-saw (Fig. 334). Screw to the 
screw chuck and mark with compasses. Place the tee-rest as in Fig. 335. 
Cut the edge with parting tool as in Fig. 335. It is common to put 
a piece of waste wood between the face-plate and the work, to cut 



Common Tools and Their Uses 



123 



against. The edge can be finished, or cut entirely, with gouge and 
scraping chisel held in the position shown in Fig. 336. Turn the face 




Fig. 338 



Fig. 339 



with gouge and scraping chisel, or scraping chisel alone, as in Fig. 
337. Work entirely between the centre and the edge nearest you, — 
never beyond the centre, for the further half of the wood is moving 
in the wrong direction. Test the straightness of the sur- 
face by eye and with straight-edge. 

To turn shapes similar to that shown in Fig. 341, first 
turn a disk, then the centre with gouge and chisel, after- 
wards holding and turning the gouge as in Figs. 338 and 

339, to remove, as at A in Fig. 

340, a part of the large saucer- 
like depression. Keep the 
basil bearing on the wood. 
Next hold the gouge as in Fig. 

341, and turn the tool so as 

to make a shearing cut at the 

edge, and also complete round- 
ing the edge, working from the face-side 
Fig. 342 {B in Fig. 340), with the basil bearing on the wood, and move 
the tool forward, and at the same time roll or turn it in the positions 




Fig. 340 



Fig. 341 
Then start the gouge as in 



124 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 

o 



shown in Figs. 343, 344, and 345, so that the edge works itself up and 
out of the wood. The surplus wood (Cin Fig. 340) can be removed 
and the surface finally smoothed by repeating the operations just de- 





Fig. 342 



Fig- 343 



scribed. This is the scientific way to turn such surfaces, by clean cutting 
rather than to scrape them into shape with scraping tools. Such opera- 




Fig. 344 



Fig. 345 



tions are hard to describe, but bear in mind to keep the basil of the 
tool bearing on the wood as a guide during the whole operation and to 



Common Tools and Their Uses 



125 



so hold and turn the tool as to cut with the grain, so far as possible. To 
cut a curve like that in Fig. 91 with a spokeshave, you would cut as 
shown by the arrows. Try to follow the same principle in turning. 





Fig- 346 



Fig- 347 



In the same way the disk in Fig. 336 can be turned into a rosette 
(Fig. 346). 

Some kinds of work have to be held in a chuck. For example, after 
turning the upper side of the candlestick base shown in Fig. 347, screw a 
piece of wood to the face-plate and turn a recess in it (Fig. 348) of the right 
size to tightly hold the turned base (Fig. 349). The depression in the 
bottom of the latter can now be turned. 





Fig. 348 



Fig. 349 



A templet, or pattern, is sometimes used to secure accuracy in turning 
some shapes. It is merely an exact reverse outline of the required form 
cut in sheet metal or thin wood and applied to the work to test it. Stop 
the lathe before applying the templet. It is best to learn to turn by eye 
as far as possible and to resort to such tests only when necessary. 

The general principle of finishing turning is the same as with other 
work. See Finishing, page 188. The wood can be filled, if required, and 
the filler cleaned off with shavings. A common way to polish is with a 



126 A Shorter Course in Woodworking 

pad. Put a little oil on a cloth, pour on shellac and make a pad to hold 
against the work. Shellac can also be applied with a brush, revolving 
the work by hand, and afterwards rubbing down in the usual way. 

Lathes are also adapted for screw-cutting, and have various tool- 
holding and self-feeding attachments — also knife attachments by which 
patterns can be turned automatically at great speed, and appliances for 
turning a great variety of odd shapes, as twisted or "rope" patterns, — 
but such matters belong to advanced work and manufacturing purposes, 
rather than to the elementary principles of hand- turning. 

103. Placing of machines. — All .machines which require careful ad- 
justment should be set up so that the light will fall properly upon the 
machines and the work. It is important that the circular-saw be so placed 
that the operator, when working, will face a window or a clear light, for 
the light should fall upon the work from the back of the saw. The lathe 
is usually placed before a window. All lines of shafting and all machinery 
should be set up exactly level and all connecting pulleys exactly in line. 
Machines should be firmly bolted to a firm foundation and be free from 
vibration. 

104. A Countershaft is used so that a machine may be started or 
stopped without affecting the running of the main shaft, and is belted 
directly to the machine and also to the main shaft. The latter belt runs 
on either of two pulleys, side by side, on the countershaft — one tight, the 
other loose (Fig. 286). When the belt is shifted to the tight pulley the 
countershaft is turned and the machine set in motion. When the belt is 
on the loose pulley the countershaft and machine stop, while the loose pulley 
continues to revolve. The belt is shifted from one pulley to the other by 
one or more levers. Loose pulleys are apt to give trouble and must not 
be neglected. 

105. Motors connected directly with each machine have some obvious 
advantages, as dispensing with the care, danger, and expense of shafting 
and belting, and also avoiding the need of running main shafting when only 
part of the machinery is in use. 

106. Pulleys and Belts. — It is better to have large pulleys than small, 
but the relative sizes must be regulated by the speed required. 

To find the speed of a pulley to be driven by another pulley, multiply 
the diameter of the driving pulley by the number of its revolutions and 
divide by the diameter of the pulley to be driven. 



Common Tools and Their Uses 127 

To find the necessary diameter of a driving pulley to give a required 
number of revolutions to a driven pulley of given diameter, multiply the 
diameter of the pulley to be driven by the required number of revolutions 
and divide by the number of revolutions of the driving pulley or the driving 
shaft. 

To find the necessary diameter of a driven pulley in order that it 
may revolve at a required speed, multiply the diameter of the driving 
pulley by its number of revolutions, and divide by the re- 
quired number of revolutions of the driven pulley; 

To make a machine run in the opposite direction from 
the shaft, which is sometimes necessary, the belt must be 
crossed between the pulleys. 

Belts are of leather or rubber.' The hair side of a 
leather belt, being the weaker side, should be in contact 
with the pulley. There are various metallic fasteners for 
belts, which are easily applied, — also lacing of wire. The 
ends can also be shaved tapering, to lap over one another, 
and glued or riveted. 

There are various ways of using the rawhide belt-lacing. ^^S- 35o 
A common way is shown in Fig. 350. Before lacing, cut the 

ends of the belt squarely across, using the try square. Punch ^ j . 

holes with a belt punch. All crossing of lacings, whether \ | 





leather or wire, must be on the outside. The lacing on the pjg ^ri 
inside which comes against the pulley must run lengthways 
of the belt, as it would soon wear through if crossed. There are two thick- 
nesses on the inside. To fasten the ends cut a little nick in the edge of the 
lacing at such a point that, when pulled through an extra hole made for the 
purpose with a knife, the nick will catch and keep the end in place 
(Fig. 351). 

A speed of three thousand feet a minute is as fast as a belt should run 
in ordinary cases. For small pulleys and narrow belts 15 feet between 
shafting is a good distance, but for larger pulleys and belts a greater distance 
is better, although it is common practice to use much shorter belts. 

To find the length of a belt, add the diameters of the pulleys, divide 
by two, multiply by 3. 14 16 and add twice the distance between the centres 
of the shafts. 

To find the width of belt for a given horse-power, multiply the horse- 



128 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 



power by one thousand, and divide by the speed of belt in feet a minute, 
the result being the required width in inches. 

To slip on a belt, do so in the direction of the motion. 

107. Oiling. — With the old-fashioned boxes where there is simply 
an oil hole, oil every morning before beginning work. Much machinery 
is now provided with devices of various kinds, which make it necessary 
to oil at long intervals only. These save much trouble and greasiness, 
although open to the objection that as the oiling is not a matter of daily 
routine it may be neglected until after the bearings have become dry. 



108. Sharpening Tools. — 

The general process with 
chisels, plane-irons, knives, 
and the like, is to grind them 
o n the grindstone, o r t h e 
emery-wheel — the former is 
better for the beginner, — and 
smooth the coarse edge left by 
the grindstone by rubbing on a 
fine stone with oil or water, 
and sometimes finally strop- 
ping on leather. Saws are 
sharpened by filing. The 
grindstone must be kept wet, 
for the heat from the friction 
of the tool on the dry stone 
Besides, the water carries ofT 




Fig. 352 



would injure the temper of the steel 
the waste particles of stone and steel, which would glaze the stone. 
To grind, stand on the side toward which the top of the stone turns. ' 
To grind a Chisel, or Plane-iron, grasp the handle of the chisel 
or the upper end of the plane-iron, with the right hand, and hold the 

' This is the proper way, but quite often the beginner can get a better result with the 
stone turning the other way, or from him, as it is easier to hold the tool without the edge 
catching. It is, however, usually harder to grind evenly in this way and the edge is usually 
not as good. 



Common Tools and Their Uses 



129 



blade in the left hand with the fingers uppermost and near the cutting- 
edge (Fig. 352) or lay the palm of the left hand across the blade. Lay 
the tool with the beveled side down quite flatly on the stone, and then 
raise the handle until the bevel touches the stone (Fig. 353). Keep 





Fig. 353 



Fig. 354 



the arms rigid near the body and hold the tool firmly against the stone. 
Move the tool slowly sideways, back and forth, across the stone, 
which helps to keep the edge straight and prevents the stone being 
worn away too much in one place. Control the 
grinding by the pressure of the fingers, or the palm, 
of the left hand, on top of the tool. Try to grind 
squarely across the blade, testing wide chisels and 
plane-irons with the try square. 

The usual angle for the bevel of such tools as the 
chisel is about 25° (a, in Fig. 354), but for very hard 
wood and rough work the angle should be slightly 
greater, lest the edge become broken, while for 
very soft wood and delicate work a smaller angle 
may be used. Do all grinding on the basil. Never 
apply the flat side of the tool to the grindstone. 
The tool should be held at the same angle all the 
time or the basil will be rounded.^ Wipe the tool dry immediately 
after grinding. 

Any slight burr, or turning over of the edge, on the flat side 
("wire-edge" or "feather-edge") should be taken off on the oilstone. 

' Appliances can be bought (or easily contrived) to ensure the correct angle being 
kept, but it is better to learn to grind without such mechanical help. 




Fig. 355 



130 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 







i 
i 



This wire-edge can be detected by pass- 
ing the thumb Hghtly over the edge 

(Fig. 355)- 

In rubbing the edge upon the oilstone 
(Fig. 356), do not attempt to smooth 
the whole bevel made by the grind- 
stone, but lay the tool lightly on the 




Fig. 356 



Fig- 357 



Fig. 358 



stone as in Fig. 354, a, and lift the handle until the upper part of the 

bevel is very slightly raised — 
barely enough to clear the stone 
{b, in Fig. 354), — the action of 
the oil will show when it has been 
raised enough, — and then rub the 
tool back and forth very steadily, 
which should make a small second 
bevel at the edge (Fig. 357). If the 
edge be rounded (Fig. 358), it will 
lack the proper keenness. The 
angle for the oilstone grind- 
ing is usually about 10° 
greater than that of the long 

bevel made on the grindstone or 35° (Fig. 354).^ 




ig- 359 



' Although the angles should be varied slightly according to the hardness of the 
wood and the kind of work, where there are only a few tools to be used for all pur- 
poses it is not practicable to vary the angles much unless there is considerable work 
of the same kind to be done. Experience will teach the best angles for different 
kinds of work. An edge suitable for delicate work in white pine would be injured 
quickly if used upon lignum-vltas. 



Common Tools and Their Uses 



131 



Any wire-edge on the flat side can be removed by drawing the 
flat side over the stone once (Fig. 359), toward you or sideways, but 
do not raise the handle at all, as any bevel on the flat side will spoil 
the edge. It can also be drawn flatways across the ball of the thumb. 
As you remove the wire-edge, feel on the bevelled side of the edge 
also. A slight wire-edge can often be removed by drawing the edge 
of the tool sideways across a piece 
of soft pine wood. After sharpen- 
ing several times on the oilstone 
the bevel will become so wide that 
it is a waste of time to rub it down. 
The tool should then be reground 
and a new bevel made on the oil 
stone. 

To tell when the edge is in prop- 
er condition, hold it toward the 
light. If the edge, or any part of 
it, can be seen as a bright line the 

tool is dull. A keen edge cannot be seen by the naked eye. Test 
for sharpness with the thumb (Fig. 355). The lightest touch of 
thumb or finger will detect any lack of keenness. Test by cutting 
across the grain of a piece of soft pine. If the cut be clean and smooth, 
the tool is sharp.' 

The edge left by the oilstone can often be improved for fine work 
by stropping. Draw the tool back over the strop, away from the 
edge (Fig. 360). Raise it from the strop on the forward stroke. 

P ane- irons can sometimes be ground to a more acute angle 
than chisels, although the jack-plane, if used for rough work, may 
need more strength at the edge. 

Gouges. — The tool must be continually turned or rolled to make 




Fig. 360 



» The fibrous structure of soft wood, being more yielding than that of hard wood, 
offers less resistance to the tool, and therefore requires a keener edge to cut it cleanly 
without tearing or crushing the wood. The firmer structure of hard wood can be cut by 
an edge which would merely tear the soft wood. 



132 A Shorter Course in Woodworking 



the grinding uniform. It can be held at right angles with the oil- 
stone, and rolled as in Figs. 361 and 362. For "inside" gouges, 





Fig. 361 



Fig. 362 



rounded pieces of stone, called "slips" are used (Fig. 363). The sHp 
need not fit the gouge exactly, but should have a curve a little quicker 
or sharper than that of the tool. The com- 
mon "outside" gouges are not rubbed on the 
inside, except the merest touch to remove any 
wire-edge or burr, but the slip can be used on 
the outside (Fig. 364). It is well to have a 
separate stone for the outside bevel of gouges, 
for the rounded edges are apt to wear the stone 
unevenly. 

The Knife. — To grind the point, it can be 
moved back and forth lengthways with a curv- 
ing motion, while resting flat on the grindstone, 
and to grind the straight part of the blade, let 
it bear a little harder near the edge of the stone 
than elsewhere, as it is passed back and forth. 
In rubbing the knife on the oilstone give it a circular motion rather 




Fig. 363 



Common Tools and Their Uses 



133 



than simply back and forth, particularly for the point. The straight 
part can be allowed to "bear a Httle more heavily near the edge of 
the stone as it is passed back and forth. 





Fig. 364 



Fig. 365 



The Drawknife is ground in the way already described, and is 
rubbed with a flat slip in the same way as the gouge (Fig. 364) resting 
the tool on the bench. 

To sharpen a Scraper requires 
a burnisher, which is simply a 
piece of hard, smooth steel of tri- 
angular or curved section.^ First 
grind the two long edges of the 
scraper squarely across on the grind- 
stone, or file them (using the file 
lengthways). Slightly round each 
corner to prevent scratching the 
wood. Then hold the file as in 
Fig. 365 and draw it along the edge 
Fig. 366 of the scraper, keeping it at right 

' If necessary, a burnisher can be made from an old three-cornered file, such as is 
used for filing saws, by grinding off the teeth and slightly rounding the angles on the 
grindstone until the tool is smooth. 




134 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 



angles to the edge. If there is a burr at the edge, rub the scraper 
lightly on the oilstone, first fiat on its side and then on edge at right 
angles to the stone. When both of the long edges are square and 





Fig. 367 



Fig. 368 



smooth, lay the scraper flat on its side near the edge of the bench and 
rub the burnisher back and forth a few times as in Fig. 366, which is 
almost flat on the scraper. This bends a little of the steel over the 
edge. Do the same on each side of the long edges, making four edges 

fthus curled over. Next, hold the scraper as in Fig. 367, and 
draw the burnisher with a firm, even stroke, once or twice, 
lengthways of the edge, as shown. The scraper can be laid 
flat on the bench, if preferred, slightly projecting over the 
edge. The burnisher should be drawn with a slightly end-to- 
end motion, as shown, which helps turn the edge. The fine edge (Fig. 
368) thus turned over will take off shavings. All four edges can 
be treated in the same way. After one edge gets dull, use another. 
When all four are dull, resharpen with the burnisher, without grind- 
ing or filing the edge. This can be done a few times, but soon the 
turned edges will become worn off and must then be refiled. Some 
workmen grind the edges of the scraper with a bevel and use only 
the acute angle of each edge. This gives a slightly keener scraping 



/ 'Z > 



Common Tools and Their Uses 135 

edge than to grind the steel square, but requires more frequent 
sharpening and is of doubtful advantage. 

The Auger-hit can be sharpened with a file and a slip-stone, — 
the scoring-nibs from the inside, lest they score a circle too small for 
the rest of the bit, while the cutting-lips are filed from the under 
side. The Centre-bit can be sharpened with a small oilstone. 

Planer -knives and the like had best be taken to a machine shop 
where there are proper facilities for grinding such edges. 

109. The Grindstone. — A quick-cutting stone is best or time will 
be wasted. Do not let it become softened in spots by being left immersed 
in a trough of water, for it will then wear away irregularly. A stone can 
be trued while revolving, either by one of the con- 
trivances made for the purpose or by holding the end 
of a piece of soft iron, as a piece of pipe, against the 
surface, without water, the iron being moved from pj„ ,^ 

side to side as may be required. Emery-wheels are 

in common use, but are not so well suited to the beginner as the 
grindstone. 

no. Oilstones of very fine and hard grain, which give a keen edge 
but cut very slowly, are not so good for the beginner as those of moderate 
coarseness which cut faster. They should be set in blocks or boxes with 
covers to keep them clean. Wipe clean after using, to remove the paste of 
ground stone, steel, and oil left on the surface. In addition to the ordinary 
rectangular oilstones, slips of stone of various shapes are useful. Fig. 369 
shows a common form. In rubbing with the slip, hold the tool upright 
in the hand and rub the slip up and down, moving the slip and not the tool 
(Fig. 364). If you rest the tool against the bench, it will steady it and the 
finger be less likely to be cut (Fig. 363). V- tools, carving gouges, or other 
tools sharpened on the inside, require slips of stone of corresponding shapes. 

The carborundum stones are excellent. The Arkansas stone pro- 
duces a keen edge, and is of fine texture. The Washita stone is good for 
woodworking tools, as it cuts rapidly. The India and Turkey stones are 
also used. Some stones cut well with water. 

When an oilstone becomes unevenly worn, it can be trued by rubbing 
on sandpaper. Water can be used in this operation, or wet sand on a board. 



136 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 



Oil — Sperm oil is good to use with oilstones. Kerosene will do, but 
is thought to harden some stones. Lard oil can be used. All thick and 
gummy oils should be avoided. Never use any vegetable oil, as linseed, 
for it is not a good lubricator, and gums the stone. 

The Strop is a piece of hard, smooth leather, as calf-skin or horse- 
hide, on which can be spread a very little paste of sweet oil and emery, 
lard oil and crocus powder, or some similar preparation well rubbed in. 
The leather can be glued to a pine board for chisels, plane-irons, and other 
flat tools. A piece held loose in the hand is good for gouges and curved 
edges. Even a pine board on which air-dust has accumulated can be used 
as a strop. 

Edge tools work more or less on the principle of the wedge (see page 
139). This can be seen plainly when using the axe, hatchet, chisel, knife, etc. 
When cutting near an edge or where the wood 
bends aside easily, as in whittling thin shavings 
(Fig. 373), the edge cuts all the time and a thin 
blade with long, tapering wedge-shaped edge can 
be used, but where the wood will not separate 
easily a blunter shape is required to force the wood 
aside so that the edge may cut. Thus in splitting 
wood the cutting-edge starts the cut, but soon 
ceases to work, as the wedge-shaped blade splits 
the wood in advance (Fig. 370). The more acute 
the cutting-edge the easier it will work, provided 
it is obtuse enough to give the necessary strength 
to the end of the tool. Soft wood is more easily 
bent aside or compressed than hard wood so that 
the angle can be more acute for the former than 
for the latter. Thus, to always cut to the best 
advantage, the angle of the cutting-edge should, 
theoretically, be changed with every new operation, but all that can be 
done practically is to have a longer bevel for soft wood than for hard. 

Saw-filing is hard for beginners to do well, and it is soon enough 
to undertake it when the pupil has become quite familiar with the use of 
tools, for it does not need to be done very often and costs but little. The 
saw-filer should know for what work the saw is to be used and whether for 
hard or for soft wood. It is easy to understand the theory of setting and 




Fig. 370 



Common Tools and Their Uses 



137 



filing saw-teeth, but to do the work well is hard and only a small proportion 
of good workmen are experts in fixing saws. 

The teeth are first "jointed," or reduced to the same level, by lightly 
passing the flat side of a file over their points, lengthways of the saw. The 
saw is firmly fastened in a saw-clamp, so that it will not shake or rattle. 
At a north window is the best place for the clamp, on account of the light. 
The teeth are set by bending them outward, one tooth toward one side 
and the next toward the other side. Do this with a "saw-set." A tooth 
should not be bent for more than half its length. 

For a cross-cutting saw the file (a triangular saw-file) is held at an angle 
with the blade depending upon the particular form of tooth adopted, as 
will be seen by examination. Hold the handle of the file in the right hand 
and the point between the thumb and forefinger of the left hand (Fig. 371). 
Push the file across with an even, straight stroke, without any rocking 
motion. Press only on the forward stroke and lift the tool on the back 

stroke. File from the 
handle toward the 
point, filing only the 
teeth which bend 
away (i. e., every 
alternate tooth), and 
carefully keeping the 
file at the proper 
angle. Press only on 
the tooth being filed, 
but keep the file 
lightly touching the 
^'^- 371 adjacent tooth, and 

make allowance for 
the fact that when the alternate set is filed the file will take off a little 
from the first set of teeth. Thus care must be taken not to file too 
much. Then turn the saw around and file the other teeth. On look- 
ing lengthways along the edge of a cross-cutting or panel saw that 
has been properly set and filed, an angular groove will be seen along 
the whole length, in which a needle will slide from one end of the 
saw to the other. After setting and filing, lay the saw on a straight 
board and joint the sides of the points of the teeth by running a 




138 A Shorter Course in Woodworking 

smooth file along the sides of the teeth. Thus the width will be more 
uniform and the cutting smoother. 

The ripping-saw is usually filed square across at right angles to the 
blade (Fig. 73), but sometimes when a saw with fine teeth is used for very 
hard cross-grained wood, a slight bevel is given the teeth in filing. A saw 
with a very thin back, to be used without setting, is good for ripping very 
dry stock. 

For soft, loose-fibred, and wet wood more set and larger teeth are 
needed than for dry hard wood, because the fibres, which are quite cleanly 
cut or broken in the hard wood, in the more yielding soft wood are bent 
aside by the teeth to close in upon the blade with considerable binding 
force. Less set is required for fine work than for coarse. 

Power-saws. — The principle and the process of setting and filing cir- 
cular-saws, band-saws, and jig-saws is the same as with hand-saws. The 

clamp for holding a circular-saw is circular. 

' J 1 J J ' To joint a circular-saw revolve it at moder- 

pj„ ,_2 ^te speed and hold a stone (a bit of grind- 

stone, whetstone, soft emery, or the like) 
against the teeth until all are reduced to the same length. The teeth 
of circular ripping-saws and band-saws are often "swaged" instead of 
being set in the way already described. The point of each tooth is 
spread with a tool called a swage, so as to be wider than the thickness of 
the blade (Fig. 372). Thus each corner of the tooth cuts instead of only 
one corner as with the common spring set. First joint, then file, then 
swage, then joint again and file each tooth sharp, and finally side-file to 
secure uniform width. 



PART II 




OPERATIONS IN SHAPING, FITTING, AND FINISHING 

WOOD 

III. Whittling. — One great thing about whittling is that you do 
not rely on squares, rules, or compasses to get the work right, but must 
be independent, think quickly, look 
sharply, and rely on your faculties. 
Keep the left hand behind the knife- 
blade, and whenever possible cut 
from you, for the tool may slip. A 
slanting stroke is often best (Fig. 
85). Much whittling is best done 
as in Fig. 373, often with the wood 
against some fixed object, and some- 
times toward the thumb as in Fig. 
374, the knife passing by the thumb 

and not against it. Watch the grain of the wood carefully to pre- 
vent cutting the wrong way. To cut 
a notch, begin in the middle and work 
outwards (Fig. 375). A notch or gain 
as in Fig. 100 can be cut as in Fig. 103. 
The wood for whittling should be of 
good quality, clear and straight-grained. 
Pine or white birch is good. 

112. Wedges are much used to 

clamp or hold parts of woodwork 

in place. See also page 150. To 

split, use a single wedge, but to 

or move, without damaging the shape of the object, use 

139 



Fig. 373 




Fig- 374 



press, hold. 



140 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 




double wedges, — that is, two wedges having the same taper and point- 
ing opposite ways. As the outer sides remain parallel when the 

separate wedges are driven, the 
work will not be injured (Fig. 
195), Long, tapering wedges 
work more slowly than short, 
flaring ones, but are more easily 
driven and are less liable to slip. 
Tenons and dowels are often 
wedged (see page 149). Wedges 
^'2- 375 and pins can often be made best 

with the chisel, after they are 
sawed or split out approximately to shape (Fig. 98). Splitting wood 
(Fig. 370) is done on the principle of the wedge. Wood will split, as 
it cracks, most easily on the radial lines or in the direction of the 
medullary rays (see page 201), and also in the lines of the annual 
rings (see page 201). 

113. Paring. — In paring to a line, the hatchet can sometimes be 
used safely until you nearly reach the line, but the direction of the 
grain must be watched carefully, since 
wood appearing to be straight-grained will 
not always split the way one would ex- 
pect. It is often well to make a series of 
short cuts first, not quite to the line (Fig. 
158), to break up the grain of the wood. 
Then trim in the direction of the grain with 

hatchet, chisel, drawknife, or whatever tool may be suitable (Figs. 158 
and 376). This can often be done in chamfering, bevelling, rabbeting, 
hinge-fitting (see page 185), etc., and is common in carving. It is 
sometimes best to make cuts with the saw (Fig. 91). 

114. Halving (Fig. 377) is a good way to join two sticks at right 
angles or obliquely. Place them in position, and mark the width of 
each upon the surface of the other with a knife. In small sticks the 
wood can be removed with the knife, first cutting a notch at each side 




Fig. 376 



Operations in Shaping, Fitting, and Finishing 141 



and then paring off the wood between (Fig. 103) . With large pieces the 
side Hnes should be marked by the square, the depth (one half the 
thickness of either piece) with the gauge. The sides of the cuts can 





Fig. 377 



Fig. 378 



then be sawed down, keeping just inside the lines. The wood can be 
pared out with the chisel (see page 33). When the halving is at the 
end of a piece (Fig. 378) the wood can be entirely removed by the saw. 





Fig. 379 



Fig. 380 



Forms involving bevelling and dovetailing are shown in Figs. 379, 380, 
381, and 382. There is also the open mortise and tenon (Fig. 383), which 





Fig. 381 



Fig. 382 



can be applied to a mitred-joint, can also be dovetailed, and is in common 
use for cheap boxes (Fig. 384). 



142 



A Shorter Course in Woodworkinof 



115. Mitring.' — The only advantage of a mitred- joint (Fig. 385) 
is that it shows only a line at the angle and that the end wood is 
concealed. It is a weak joint at best. There are some cases, as in 
making a picture frame of "moulding," when mitring is the only way 




Fig. 383 



Fig. 384 



Fig. 385 



in which the frame can well be put together, but as a rule, particularly 
where strength is required, avoid the mitre. To lay out a mitre, or 
the lines for the meeting of two pieces at any angle, the pieces can 
be laid one above the other at the desired 
angle (for which square or bevel can be used), 
and the points of crossing marked on each 
edge (Fig. 386). Lines connecting these 

points will give the angles 

for cutting. Use the square 

to draw the lines on the 

edges. To nail a mitred- 

joint, fasten one piece up- 
right in the vise, and after 

boring and driving the nail 
into the other piece until it pricks through, place the latter with the 
corner slightly projecting (Fig. 387). As the nail is finally driven 
home the upper piece can be forced down until the corners meet. 
Before gluing, size the joint with thin glue (see page 184).' When 
dry, scrape, glue again, and put the joint together (see Picture-framing, 
page 252). 

' This applies to indoor work. Do not glue joints which are to be exposed to the 
weather. 





Fig. 386 



Fig. 387 



operations in Shaping, Fitting, and Finishing 143 

The mitre-box (page 85) is the simplest way to saw a mitre accurately 
without machinery. A trimmer (page 61), with knives making a shearing 
cut, is good for trimming accurately at a mitre or other angle, and a mitre 
shooting-board (page 85) or an adjustable mitre-plane can also be used. 






Fig. 388 Fig. 389 Fig. 390 

The mitre is not a good joint for wide pieces used flatways (Fig, 388), for 
the wood will expand and contract more or less. Shrinking in width will 
open a tapering crack from the inner corner (Fig. 389) ; swelling, from the 
outer corner (Fig. 390). A mitred-joint can be strengthened by inserting 
a spline or tongue, with the grain running across the joint (Fig. 391), and 







Fig. 391 Fig. 392 Fig. 393 

glued under pressure when possible. This fitting is quickly done with a 
circular-saw, but requires much care to do well by hand. A mitred-joint 
can be halved (Fig. 392), and can also be dowelled (page 152). Saw-kerfs, 
or wider cuts, can be made (Figs. 393 and 394), into which thin strips can 
be tightly fitted and glued, — a good way, after the mitre is put together. 



144 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 



A combination of the mitre with the joint in Fig.^ 383 is shown in Fij 
395, the result being much stronger than the plain mitre. 





Fig. 394 



Fig- 395 



116. The Mortise and Tenon.— The mortise (Fig. 396) is the 
hole in one of the two pieces to be joined. The tenon is the pin or 
projection in the other piece, shaped to fit the mortise. 

To lay out a mortise and tenon (Fig. 396), 
select and mark the working faces for each 
piece. First take the piece in which the 
mortise is to be cut (Fig. 397). Square two 
Unes, ab and cd, across the face (Fig. 397) 
and the same distance apart as the width 
of the tenon piece. Carry these lines across 
the side X {ae and cf) and also across the 
side opposite to X 
(that is, the side 
where the tenon 
will come through) . 
Next measure from 
the end of the 
tenon-piece (Fig. 398) a distance a trifle greater than the width of 




Fig. 396 




Operations in Shaping, Fitting, and Finishing 145 



X KXXXY^ 



the face of the mortise-piece, and from this point square a line, gh, 
across the face of the tenon-piece. Continue this Hne, gi, around the 
piece, with the square. Set the gauge at the distance that the mor- 
tise is to be from the 
face, scribe the Hne j^ on 
the side X (Fig. 379), 
and on the opposite 
side. From the face of 
the tenon-piece (Fig. 398), without changing the gauge, mark Im on the 
side X, on the opposite side, and on the end. Add the width of the 
mortise to the distance at which the gauge was set, and scribe another 
set of lines, op and rs, etc., as be- 




Fig. 398 



Fig- 399 



fore, gauging all the time from the 
same face. Another gauge can be 
used for this; or both sides of the 
mortise marked at once with the 
mortise gauge (page 14). In 
coarse work, where marks on the 
surface do no harm, the gauge 
marks can be run across the other 
lines. The parts to be cut away, 
or to be kept, can be shown by 
cross marks (Fig. 399). These are 
called "witness-marks" in framing. 
The simplest way to cut a mor- 
tise is to first bore a series of holes, 
from both sides of the mortise, with 
a bit of a diameter a little smaller 
than the width of the mortise (Fig. 
399) . The rest of the wood can be 
pared to the lines with the chisel. 
Do not jam it down lengthways of 
the mortise when the latter is blocked with chips or firm wood, lest the 
side of the mortise be split off. 




Fig. 400 



146 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 



To cut out the wood with the chisel only, take one a little less in 
width than the mortise, begin near the middle of the mortise, hold 





Fig. 401 

SHOWING SECTION 



Fig. 402 

SHOWING SECTION 



the tool as in Fig. 400, with the basil turned outward, and make a 

V-shaped opening in the middle 
(Fig. 401). Then make successive 
cuts, working toward the ends, which 
will be left slanting (Fig. 402). Give 




Fig. 403 
SHOWING SECTION 




Fig. 404 



the chisel handle a sHght pull toward the centre of the mortise each 
time you move it, to loosen the chips. 

After cutting about half through the piece (Fig. 402), turn it over 



Fig. 405 



Operations in Shaping, Fitting, and Finishing 147 

and repeat the process from the other side (Fig. 403). Now turn the 
chisel around with the flat side toward either end of the hole (Fig. 403), 
and pare the end to the line. Finally, use the chisel lengthways of the 
grain only toward the end of the process, to pare the sides evenly with 
light strokes to the line. Try to hold the chisel so that the sides of 
the mortise will be square with the surface. Test the cutting of the sides 
and ends with the chisel (Fig. 404). The firmer- or paring-chisel can 
be used for light mortising, but for heavy work use the mortising-chisel. 
To cut the tenon, saw carefully to the line gh and its opposite 
(Fig. 398), and on the lines Im and rs. Do not cut beyond the line, 

or the tenon may be too small. It is easy to trim it a . — ^ 

little with the chisel if too large. In soft wood the sides < ' ^ 
of a tenon can often be pared down best with the chisel, 
but in hard wood the saw can often be used to better ad- 
vantage. Cut a little bevel around the end of the tenon 
(Fig. 405), so that it will not tear the mortise. The pro- 
jecting end of the tenon can be cut off afterward. The tenon should 
fit the mortise snugly, but should not require much force to drive 
in, lest it split out the sides of the mortise. 

The proportions of a mortise and tenon should depend on the kind of 
work, the wood, the strain to be put on the joint, etc. If the tenon is very 
thin it will be weaker than the sides of the mortise. If very thick, the 
reverse will be the case. One third of the width of the piece is as thin as a 
tenon is often made (Fig. 406). It will then sometimes be weaker than 
the sides of the mortise. If the joint is to stand 
violent wrenching, the tenon in this case might break 
before the mortise-cheeks, and had best be made a 
Fig. 406 little thicker, with the sides of the mortise a little 

thinner ; but if the joint is merely to hold the tenon- 
piece in position, as in case of a post resting on a sill, one third is wide 
enough for the tenon, as it is best not to weaken the sill by cutting a 
larger mortise than necessary. On the other hand two thirds of the width 
of the piece would be too thick to make a tenon, as it would leave the 
cheeks of the mortise very thin. 



148 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 




Fig. 407 



Fig. 408 



The length of a mortise is also a matter of judgment. If the tenon is 
thin, the mortise can be longer than if it is thick, for the cheeks will be 
thicker and stronger; but, as a rule, avoid trying to make very long mortises, 
unless the tenon is very thin and the wood very strong, as 
there may not be strength enough in the cheeks of the 
mortise (Fig. 407). Six times as long as it is wide is about 

as long as it is well to make a 
mortise under ordinary circum- 
stances. 

Sometimes the tenon-piece is 
simply let into the other piece for its full width ("housing," Fig. 408). 
Two or more tenons are sometimes cut on a wide piece, thus avoiding too 
long a mortise; but this will not do for very wide stock, unless some of the 
tenons are fitted loosely at the ends, for the expansion and contraction of 
a wide piece may cause change of shape or splitting, if all the mortises 
fit snugly (Fig. 409). In such cases as a door-frame, or when the end of a 

board is to be fitted into the side of a post, a 

tongue and groove is often used in addition 

to the tenon ("relishing," Fig. 410), and 

this is a good way. The 

mortise and tenon given 

in Fig. 396 is a very simple 

form. Sometimes the 

tenon is short and does 

not go through (Fig. 416). 

In this case it should 

not reach quite to the 

bottom of the mortise. 

This is a common form, 

sometimes called blind 

mortising. 



Fig. 409 






Fig. 410 



Pig. 411 



Mortise and tenon 
joints can be glued, pinned, wedged, dovetailed, and fastened with 
a key. 



To pin a mortise and tenon, mark a point with square and gauge upon 



Operations in Shaping, Fitting, and Finishing 149 



each side of the mortise-piece (Fig. 411), fit the tenon in place, bore a hole, 
drive through a snugly fitting pin, and trim off the projecting ends. In 
fine work bore from both sides. The pin should be slightly pointed before 




h rFfRi 



^ 



Fig. 412 



Fig. 413 





driving. An eight-sided pin is as good as a round one. Do not use too 
large pins. In ship-building, bridge-building, and old-fashioned house- 
framing, pins and treenails from i" to i ^" or more in diameter are used. 
Dowels (page 152) will often do for small framing (though a rift-pin is 
stronger). For such work as pinning a joint in a chair or table, a }/i" 
hard- wood pin will usually do. If the pin is too far from the edge, its hold on 
the tenon will be weak and the end of the latter may break out (shear). If 
too near the edge, the sides of the mortise may tear or split off. 
Sometimes, particularly in tim- 
ber work, to insure a snug fit at the 
joint, " draw-boring " is resorted to 
(Fig. 412). The hole in the tenon 
is bored a little nearer the shoulder 
than the holes in the mortise- piece, 
so that when the pin is driven through it draws the tenon-piece to a snug 
fit at the shoulder. This has to be done with judgment; for if the hole in 
the tenon is too much out of line, driving the pin through puts too much 
strain on the end of the tenon, on the pin, and on the sides of the mortise. 

To wedge a tenon, one or more saw-cuts should be made in it and carried 
farther than the wedges will extend (Fig. 413). A small tenon can be split 
carefully with a chisel. Before wedging, the ends of the mortise should be 
enlarged toward the side on which the tenon comes through (Fig. 414). 
The tenon and mortise having been glued, ' and glue also put into the saw- 

' Use glue for indoor work only. It is useless for work to be exposed to the weather. 



Fig. 414 



Fig. 415 



150 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 



cuts with a thin slip of wood, the tenon is fitted in place, and the wedges, 
previously prepared and tapering quite gradually, are dipped in the glue 
and driven down into the saw-cuts. Thus the end of the tenon is spread 
into a dovetail until it fills the mortise tightly (Fig. 415), making it very 
hard or impossible to pull it out. 

When the tenon does not go through (Fig. 416), the mortise is undercut 
as before, and the wedges 
are so planned and cut that 
they will spread the tenon 
to fit the mortise. The 
wedges must not be so long 
as to break off or to inter- 
fere with the tenon being 
driven home, and the bot- 
tom of the mortise must 

be flat where the wedges will come, else they may be bent to one side and 
not drive into place. When everything is ready, apply the glue, start the 
wedges in the cracks, and drive the tenon to place. This will push in 
the wedges, spread the tenon at the end and fix it firmly. If well done, 
it cannot be withdrawn. 

To have the tenons pass through the other pieces and be held in place 
by keys or wedges is a way much used for bookcases, tables, and the like 
(Fig. 696). The process is similar to that already described, and requires 





Fig. 416 



Fig. 417 






Fig. 418 



Fig. 419 



Fig. 420 



much care. If the small mortises for the wedge-shaped keys are cut before 
the tenons, there will be less danger of splitting the latter. To make the 
keys, get out one piece of the required size and long enough to make all 
the keys wanted. Saw them to length, gauge the small ends, mark the 
taper on the sides (Fig. 417), and cut to the lines. They can also be got 
out in one block, tapering (Fig. 418), and then sawed into the required 



Operations in Shaping, Fitting, and Finishing 151 



number of wedges ; or a rectangular block of the necessary size can be sawed 

slantingly (Fig. 419). (See also Wedges, page 139.) Square lines around a 

tenon piece at the shoulder. Mark the width of the tenon with the gauge 

on the sides and end. Gauge lines on the tenon for 

the sides of the mortise into which the key is to fit, 

and square lines across these gauge marks so that 

the mortise for the key will be of the right length 

for the latter to fit ('Fig. 420). In marking the hne 

which is nearer the shoulder, it should be a little 

nearer the shoulder than the distance from the latter 

to the pin, so that the pin will force the joint to a 

snug fit (Fig. 421). 

The mortise is laid out and cut as already de- 
scribed. The shoulders of the tenon-piece can be 

slightly undercut, or bevelled inwards (Fig. 422, which is exaggerated) to 
ensure a close fit. It is common to have two mortises and tenons. 




Fig. 421 



For common or rough work the tenons already described will do, 

^^^^^^ but for nice work shoulders are also cut at the other 

W^^^Wm sides of the tenon (Fig. 413). 

joint, as these 
Fig. 422 

mortise. 



This makes a neater 
shoulders cover the ends of the 



When the joint comes at the end of the mortise-piece, the tenon can 
extend to the edge on the outside and the mortise be cut out to the end, 
forming an open mortise and tenon joint 
(Fig. 383), or a wide shoulder can be left 
on the outside of the tenon (Fig. 423). 
This is done in doors and frames of vari- 
ous kinds. 

When two mortises come together as in 
Fig. 72 6, the result may not be so strong as 
when they come at different places, be- 
cause the mortise-piece may be cut up too much; but where there is 
plenty of wood in the mortise-piece in proportion to the size of the tenon, 
this will make no difiEerence. In laying out mortising for frames, chairs, 
tables, screens, and the like, where there are two or more pieces alike, lay the 




^K/v^ 



Fig. 423 



152 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 



similar pieces on the bench or horses, for marking, with the face-sides either 
together or on the outside, to ensure accuracy in putting the work together. 

117. Dowelling. — Dowels are round sticks of different diameters 
used in place of nails and screws, or instead of mortis- 
ing, dovetailing, etc. They can be split and wedged 
(Fig. 424), in which case the outer ends of the holes 
should usually be enlarged. Dowels are much used in 
framing furniture, which is not to be recommended, 
usually, as mortise and tenon are generally much 
better. Split and wedged dowels are often useful. 
Dowels are sometimes good when slender members 
are to be joined, and are valuable in pattern-making 
and where it is required that the parts of work be 
separable, when the dowels can be glued into one 
piece only. Dowelling, to be good, has to be skilfully 
done. 

To find the centres for boring, so that the holes in the two pieces 
will be opposite each other, square lines across both pieces, and 



H- 



Fig. 424 



r^N/^ 



Fig. 425 



Fig. 426 



gauge lines at the required 
distance from the edge of 
each piece, crossing the 
lines just squared (Fig. 
425).' It is well to take 
a round pointed awl and 
prick a small hole at each 
point marked, to start the 
worm of the bit, as it is apt to work off to one side. 

It is hard to bore the holes exactly at right angles to the surface, 

' Where gauge and square can not be used, the centres can sometimes be found by 
scribing, with compasses, the same intersecting lines upon each piece, as in Fig. 37. 
Also, if other means can not well be used, cut off and point the heads of small wire brads 
and drive them into one piece, where the centres of the holes should be, until they project 
perhaps Vie of an inch. Press the pieces together in the right position in order that the 
brads may prick corresponding holes in the second piece (Fig. 426). 



Operations in Shaping, Fitting, and Finishing 153 



which is necessary for a good joint. Sometimes the pieces can be laid 
flat on the bench and blocks arranged to guide the bit. The dowels 
must be thoroughly dry. It is better to have them a trifle too large 
rather than too small, for then they can be pared to a snug flt. ' Trim 
off the sharp edge at the ends (Fig. 427).^ Countersink (page 55) a 
little hollow around the mouth of each hole (Fig. 
428) to catch the surplus glue, which otherwise may 
form a rim around the dowel. Before gluing, the 
work should be fitted together, as it is very awk- 
ward to make changes after beginning to 
glue. If the parts flt accurately take 
the joint apart, glue around the inside 
of one of the holes with a small stick, 




Fig. 427 



Fig. 428 




Fig. 429 



dip one end of a dowel in the glue and drive into place. Wipe off 
any superfluous glue and repeat the process with each of the dowels 
in that half of the joint. Leave to dry a day or more. Then see that 

there is no hardened glue on the 
dowels or on the faces of the 
joint, and glue them as before 
into the other piece, this time 
putting glue on the flat sur- 
faces which are to come to- 
gether. These should be warm 
(see page 182). Clamp the 
whole firmly and leave to dry. Dowels are sometimes used in joining 
edges (Fig. 429), and in many other joints. 

Dowels are usually of hard wood and can be bought in long sticks. To 
make them of exact size throughout, they can be driven with a mallet 
through a hardened steel plate having holes of various sizes. The sizes 
should be such that the dowels will drive snugly into the holes made by the 
corresponding bits. The holes in the plate should be slightly smaller at 
the top (Fig. 430). 

^ It is well to scratch them lengthways with the toothed-plane or with the edge of a file. 
' Dowel sharpeners are made for this purpose. 



154 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 



ii8. Dovetailing requires much skill to do well. It is a scientific 
and workmanlike method, which should be understood even if seldom 
used. The common form, used in joining the sides of a box (Fig, 431), 
can be done as follows: mark the lines ab (Fig. 432), using the gauge, 

completely around each piece, at a distance from 

'^X/XA \^X/^\ the end equal to the thickness of the stock. Lay 
Fig. 430 off the lines cd on the end of the piece A. Lay 

off the oblique lines ec on both sides of the wood. 
Fasten the piece in the vise, end upward, and with the back-saw (or a 
dovetail-saw) cut by these oblique lines {ec) to the lines ah. Lay the 
piece flat, and with the chisel cut out the parts to be removed (marked 
•m), as in cutting a mortise (page 146), undercutting very slightly at the 
end (Fig. 422). When this cutting has been cleanly done, lay the piece 





Fig. 431 



Fig. 432 



A on the end of the piece B in the way it is finally to go, so that the 
pins just cut will rest exactly in position across the end of the piece B. 
Mark around the pins, forming the oblique lines jg, from the ends of 
which square the lines gh on both sides of the piece. Remove the 
wood as before, taking care not to cut on the wrong sides of the Hues 
which mark the pins, or the dovetailing may fit too loosely. When 
fitted, apply glue, put together, and when dry smooth off. 



Lap or drawer dovetailing (Fig. 433) is similar to the preceding form, 
but the ends of the pins or dovetails on the sides of the drawer are shortened, 



Operations in Shaping, Fitting, and Finishing 155 



and the recesses in the front piece which are to receive them are not cut 
through to the front. The side piece (Fig. 434a) is marked and cut as 




f 




Fig. 433 



Fig. 434a 



Fig. 434b 



just shown, the pins being shorter; then the other piece (Fig. 434b) is marked 
and cut to fit. Mitre dovetailing {blind or secret dovetailing) is used where it 
is desired to conceal the dovetails, the result looking like an ordinary mitred 
joint. This process requires much skill and care. 

Practised workmen in dovetailing usually (unless exact symmetry of 
the pins is required) determine the bevels for 
the pins of the first piece by eye. 



119. End-joints. — Saw the ends off as 
squarely as possible and plane or pare 
them if necessary. To saw to a fit, hold 
the pieces in position and run the saw down 
through the joint AB (Fig. 435). If one 
sawing is not sufficient, repeat the operation. 



S 



f 




Fig. 435 

This method can be used 
with joints which meet at any angle, but should not be relied on as a 
regular way to make joints, lest it result in a careless method of work. 





Fig. 436 



Fig. 437 



Where only one side of each 
piece shows, the ends are some- 
times undercut slightly — that 
is, the joint is made a little 
open at the bottom, to ensure 



a tight joint on the side which shows (Fig. 436, which is exaggerated). 
Ends are sometimes joined by bevelled scarfing or splaying (Fig. 437), 
which makes a better joint in some cases than the common square or butt 
joint, but is more work. Strips of moulding are often joined in this way. 



156 A Shorter Course in Woodworking 

120. Splicing. — There are many ways of splicing two 
or more pieces to get greater length, some for bridge-building, 
roof-framing, etc., being quite complicated. The beginner 
will rarely, however, have occasion to do more than nail 
strips (fish-plates) on the sides of the pieces (Fig. 438), or 
make a halved splice or scarfed joint (Fig. 439), which can 
be fastened in various ways. A joint 
for a brace is shown in Fig. 757a. 
^'^■^^^ 121. To makeWide Surfaces with ^^^'439 

two or more boards or planks several methods can be used. Cleating 
(page 157), though strong and suitable for such work as common 
drawing-boards, rough doors, and the like, is often undesirable. The 
simplest way, without cleats, is to glue the edges, which must first 
be jointed (page 47). Then after gluing (page 182), the surface can 

be planed and squared to the required 

dimensions. This kind of joint is 

sometimes dowelled (page 153), or 

p- Q grooves cut and a spline inserted (Fig. 

440). A rabbet can be cut in each 

edge from opposite sides (Fig. 708). The edges can also be matched 

(Fig. 740), in which case it is not usual to glue them. These last 

ways can be done by machine quicker than by hand. 

To avoid warping and change of shape, any wide surface, such as a 
drawing-board or bread-moulding-board, should be cleated or fastened 
in some way, or be built up of selected narrower pieces (Fig. 441). This 
is done for many things, as the tops of benches, machine-tables, drawing- 
boards, etc. I Arrange the pieces so that the grain of the ends will be 
reversed in adjacent pieces (Fig. 441). This helps to counteract the ten- 

^ The frames of machines, chopping-blocks, masts, bows, fishing-rods, and many other 
objects are sometimes built up of selected pieces, to avoid flaws and defects and to arrange 
the grain to the best advantage. When glue is used there is always the danger that 
the joints may come apart. A piece which is practically perfect is probably better in most 
cases than a built-up combination. Otherwise it may be better to build up with smaller 
pieces of selected stock. 




o o o 

o o p. o 

o o o o 

o o o 



Fig. 442 



Operations in Shaping, Fitting, and Finishing 157 

dency to warp. The grain on the surfaces of the pieces should run the 
same way so far as possible, otherwise it will be hard to smooth the surface 
after gluing, — for the whole should be glued together before 
smoothing the surfaces and edges. 

122. Cleating. — ^A strong way to join two or more 
pieces of board or plank to make a wider piece is to 
cleat them on the side (Fig. 442). Such a cleat should 

not be glued unless the surface 

^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^=^^^^W^ is very narrow, since the ex- 
Fig. 441 pansion and contraction across 
the surface is much greater than 
that lengthways of the cleat (see page 211). Screws or nails should be 
used, as they will allow some play to the pieces. If the pieces are 
short they can be cleated across the ends (Fig. 443), which does well 

for bread-moulding-boards and the like, 
or to keep a single board from warping. 
A groove can also be made in the cleat, 
into which a tongue on the end of the 
board can be fitted (Fig. 444) . Grooves 
can be cut in both 
cleat and board, and 1)))))),'^ 
a tongue or spline 
inserted (Fig. 445). 




Fig. 443 



Fig. 444 



These operations are done best by machinery. End-cleating does 
well on small work and where the tendency to warp is not too great. 
For heavier work, as doors, cleats on the 
side are stronger, though not always desir- 
able. Do not put the screws or nails in a 
straight line, but "stagger" them (Fig. 442). ^^g- 445 



A good way for such work as a drawing-board, but requiring nice work, 
is to use tapering wedge-shaped cleats, dovetailed into the under side of the 
board (Fig. 446). Make the cleats a little too long and drive them into 
place. 



158 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 




Fig. 446 



Chamfering. — A chamfer is the surface formed by cutting 
away the angle made by two faces of a piece 
of wood. To chamfer or bevel with the plane, 
chisel, spoke-shave, draw-knife, or other 
tool, first mark parallel lines to work to 
(Fig. 447) with a pencil (Figs. 30-33) rather 
than a spur gauge, lest the work be defaced 
by the gauge mark. Then pare the wood 
gradually to these lines, or first make a series of cross-cuts to break 
up the grain of the wood (Fig. 376), trim- 
ming off in the direction of the grain. 
Where both end and side are to be cham- 
fered, as in Fig. 448, first cut the end, be- 
cause of possible chipping at the corner, 
and in cutting it you can work from each 
corner toward the middle. A simple bevel 
(Fig. 448) is usually best made with the 
plane, which can often be slanted to good 
advantage (Fig. 139). In paring a bevel 

across the grain with the chisel, push the tool as in Fig. 94. This 
is the easiest and cleanest way to cut, and prevents splintering. To 

remove waste wood the chisel can some- 
times be held best with the basil down 
(Fig. 95), finishing with the fiat side 
down. Test a chamfer with the bevel 
(Fig. 20), or by holding a straight-edge 
across the surface (Fig. 53). 




Fig. 447 




Fig. 448 



In cutting the ends of a stop-chamfer (Fig. 449) , do not cut quite down 
to the line at first, or a tool mark may be left which can not be removed. 
For long chamfers or bevels, use the plane, as far as you can without striking 
the wood at the ends. The plane can be held slantingly, so as to cut near 
the ends, and a bull-nosed' plane will cut nearer still. The draw-knife 
can sometimes be used before the plane. The extreme ends must 
be trimmed with the chisel or other tool. In sandpapering a chamfer 



Operations in Shaping, Fitting, and Finisliing 159 




Fig 449. 



care must be taken not to round the angles (Figs. 207, 208 and 209). 
Sometimes it is desired to remove only the sharp edge or corner, by merely 
a slight touch of a tool or by 
sandpaper. A "cornering tool" y:^^' 
is made for this purpose. 

124. Grooving. — A rectan- 
gular groove can be cut by hand 
with a plane made for the pur- 
pose (as the plough), although 
this operation has been super- 
seded by machine work, except in cases of necessity. The beginner 
should, however, learn to do such work by hand. The router is often 
used to smooth the bottom of a groove or a dado. 

In some cases the sides of a groove can be sawed by a hand-saw and the 
material removed by the chisel, but this is not easy if the groove is long. A 
stick is sometimes clamped beside the line to guide the saw and occasionally 
attached to the saw itself, or to a piece of saw-blade. The lines for the 
groove can also be cut with the knife or chisel, and the wood between re- 
moved by the chisel. A templet or pattern can easily be made to test the 
depth of grooving. 

125. Dadoing. — A dado is a rectangular 
groove across the grain (Fig. 450), and the 
principle of cutting is the same as for other 
grooving (see above). A dado-plane or the 
circular-saw (page 96) can be used. Dado- 
ing is used for the best inside finishing, where 
the inside corner of the joint shows (Fig. 
450), for it is good construction and never 
shows an open joint, as may happen with mitring. 
See also Coping (page 164), and Rabbeting (below). 
126. Rabbeting. — A rabbet is a rectangular recess or groove cut 
lengthways in the edge of a piece of wood (Fig. 707), and is best 
made by machine (see Circular-saw, page 95). The beginner should 




Fig. 450 



i6o 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 



learn to cut one by hand however, and the rabbet-plane (page 42) 
is a useful tool. 

In some cases the saw can be used, the lines for the 

rabbet having been carefully marked with a knife or 

gauge. The chisel can also be used, as in cutting a 

mortise (Fig. 451). In the final trimming hold the flat 

side of the chisel toward the line. It is often best to 

pare across the grain with the chisel, 

A strip of wood can be clamped 

,^j^ -g across the piece on the line as a 

^■m£| gauge or guide for the saw and 

■"^HBI^ the sawing be done with the heel 

^^^^^^wgHiwl or rear corner of the saw, keep- 

^B BBBJj^BKa- ing the latter close to the gauge, 

and pieces are sometimes even 

clamped to the saw itself to guide 

it. Such expedients, though useful under some circumstances, are hardly 

the most workmanlike methods. 




Fig. 451 



Fig. 452 




Fig. 453 



127. To make a stick eight-sided or octagonal in section. — First 
make it square in section. Lay out an octagon 
on the end (see page 233). Gauge lines on the 
four sides of the piece, from the angles of the 
octagon, to show how much to plane off (Fig, 
452). ' For nice work a pencil-gauge (page 13) 
should be used to avoid defacing the work. Mark 
the sides which are not to be planed (Fig. 452), 

else they may be planed by mistake. In plan- 
ing, place the wood in the vise, or against the bench-stop, or in a 
form (Fig. 453), taking care not to plane below the gauged lines. 

128. To round a stick. — First, make it eight-sided (see above). 
Next, if the stick is large enough, plane off each of the eight corners so 
that it will be sixteen-sided. This is about as far as you can go in 
this way, unless the stick is quite large. Set the plane fine or you 

' By setting the gauge equal to the radius of the arcs in Fig. 452, or one half the diagonal 
of the square, the required lines can be made, provided the piece is square in section. 



Operations in Shaping, Fitting, and Finishing i6i 



may plane too much. Do the rest of the rounding with light, fine 
strokes, testing by eye and by passing the hand over the work. Some- 
times the spoke-shave, chisel, or file can be used to good advantage, 

as well as a curved 

scraper or glass. Cut 

sandpaper in strips 

and pull it back and 

forth around the stick 

(Fig. 454). Also use 

it lengthways of the 

grain (Fig. 455). An 

edge is rounded in the 

same way, first cham- 





Fig. 454 
fering, then cutting off the angles left, and so on. 



Fig- 455 

Fig. 456 shows how 



the end of a round stick can be squared and Fig. 457 how it can be sawed. 

Wood will rarely be found with perfectly straight grain, except in "rift" 
stock or natural sticks (and in these there are often unexpected twists and 
crooked streaks), so watch the grain carefully. Even a slight turn of the stick 
will often bring the grain wrong with relation to the tool, and one false cut 
running in too deep, or, perhaps across the stick, will spoil the work. 





Fig. 456 



Fig- 457 



Masts and spars should be "natural sticks," if possible, and the final 
shaping and smoothing will be all they will require. 

To round small sticks, as spars for model boats, arrows, etc., follow the 



l62 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 



same process so far as the small size of the sticks will allow; but when the 
stick is too small to do this, fasten the plane bottom-up in the vise and pull 
the stick along the sole, or, hold the knife, with the edge downward, close 
against the side of your leg just above the knee, and pull the stick up 
steadily between the leg and the knife. Small square sticks can often be 
rounded entirely with the file, following the regular process so far as the 
size of the stick will allow. At the last one end can be rested on the bench 
and the stick turned toward you while filing. 






Fig. 458 

129. Bending Wood. — The best way to make wood pliable for 
bending is usually by steaming in a steam-chest, which is simply a 
wooden or metal box with a steam pipe opening into it. Soaking 
wood for some time in boiling hot water will often make it sufficiently 
pliable, and cold water can be used in many cases. Soaked wood has, 
however, more tendency to straighten when dry than if steamed. 



operations in Shaping, Fitting, and Finishing 163 




Fig- 459 



Pieces can be wrapped in cloth (flannel is good) , or buried in sawdust or 
sand in a covered box, boiling water poured over them, and left to soak in the 
steam retained. Small pieces, or the ends of sticks, can be boiled in a 
kettle or wash-boiler. Boiling is not 
favorable to the durability of wood, nor 
is steaming conducive to strength. 
Greasing and applying heat is some- 
times done. 

Fig. 458 shows forms or moulds for 
bending. A strap of brass or other 
metal, or even a thin piece of wood 
should be placed outside of the stick 
to be bent when the curve is quick, to prevent the wood splitting or splinter- 
ing. If one end of the strap be fastened to the form and a "stop" or end 

piece attached to the other end, to bear hard 

f////////ll against the end of the piece to be bent, end-pres- 

• sure will be applied, during the bending, which 

RIGHT WRONG hclps (Fig. 459). Winding Tound or Small squarc 

Fig. 460 pieces with narrow strips of thin canvas, strong 

tape, or the like, will often prevent slivering. 

After bending, the wood should be held in place until dry, or it will 
spring toward its original shape. The drying will take from several hours 
to several days, according to the size 
of the wood and the condition of 
the atmosphere. It is well to bend a 
piece a little more than you wish it 
to remain, unless it is to be perma- 
nently fastened, as there is usually a 
tendency to straighten out. A piece 
should be left on the form until dry 
and set. 

For ribs, and the like, the stock Fig. 461 

should be got out so that the annual 

layers of the wood (page 201) will be at right angles to the direction in 
which the nails are to be driven (Fig. 460) . 




To bend a piece (without steaming or boiling), which is to be 



1 64 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 



fastened so that but one side will show, make a series of kerfs of equal 
depth (Fig. 461) across the back-side (the side which will not show), 
which makes the piece thinner so far as bending is concerned. This 
is best done with a circular-saw (page 94). 




Fig. 462 



Fig. 463 



Fig. 464 




Fig. 465 



The nearer together and the deeper the cuts the more the piece can be 
bent, — up to the breaking point. Hot water can be used on the face-side. 
Such curves can sometimes be strengthened by driving wedges, with glue, 
into the saw-kerfs after the piece is bent (Fig. 462), or 
the "kerfing" so planned that the cuts will close up, 
and can be glued. First run gauge lines along the 
edges, that the saw-cuts may be of 
equal depth. For uniform curves 
the kerfs should be the same distance 
apart. Bend the piece as you make 
the cuts. The proper distance be- 
tween the kerfs for them to close up 
can be calculated, but this is unneces- 
sary for the work of the beginner. A 
moulding can sometimes be bent after 
sawing it into strips lengthways. 



Fig. 466 



L 



D 



Fig. 467 



Fig. 468 



130. Coping. — The end of a 

moulding is said to be coped when 
it is cut to fit another piece, as in Fig, 463. Saw the end to be cut at an 
angle of 45°, as in making a "back" or "inside" mitre (Fig. 464, the 
reverse of the mitre for a picture frame), and it will give the Hne 
to which to cut (Fig. 465). The cutting is done with gouge and chisel 



Operations in Shaping, Fitting, and Finishing 165 



Fig. 469 



Fig. 470 



I 

Fig- 471 



or a coping-saw (page 30). Dadoing (page 159) and coping are the 

best methods for fitting inside corners in first-class inside finishing. 
131. Mouldings are of almost endless variety. 

A fillet (Fig. 466) is a strip of rectangular section, 

much used in ornamental construction and often 

combined with other forms. The astragal, or 

round -nosed moulding (Fig. 467), is in common 

use. The ogee {cyma recta and cyma reversa) is 

also common (Fig. 468). Figs. 469, 470, 471 

show types of common mouldings, the propor- 
tions and arrangement of which are varied as 

desired. Beading, either projecting or sunk even 

with the surface, is a common form of ornament, 

either at a corner (staff -bead. Fig. 472), or edge, 

as in matched -boards (Fig. 473), or when called 

reeds as in Fig. 474. Mouldings are said to be 

"stuck," meaning worked or made. The bead 

in matched-boards is to render the joint less 
noticeable by making it an inconspicuous part 
of the moulding and in shadow. A few simple 
shapes, besides those given above, are suggested 
in Fig. 475, as being in common use for the 
edges of table-tops, bookcase-tops, and the like. 
The elementary forms can be variously com- 
bined, according to the taste of the designer. 

132. To True Surfaces. — To true a curved 
or warped board, lay it on the bench with the 
rounded side down and wedge it firmly under- 
neath to make it as nearly level as possible. 
Then scribe a line with the compasses across each 
end at the height of the lowest point of the sur- 
face (Fig. 476) ; and cut a depression or rabbet 
at each end down to this line (Fig. 477), or 
chamfer to the line. Winding-sticks (page 86) 






Fig. 472 




Fig. 473 



c 



V^/'AT 



i: 



I — \r\r\r^ — 1 



Fig. 474 



i66 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 



will show whether the rabbets are in line, and they can be altered 
if necessary. Draw lines on each edge connecting the bottoms of the 
rabbets, or chamfers, and plane down to these lines. Test by sighting 
and the straight edge. The other side can be made parallel, and 




Fig- 475 

therefore true, by setting the gauge at the thinnest point, gauging a 
line all around the edge, and planing to the line. Warping or winding 
of short pieces can be detected by laying a straight-edge diagonally 
from corner to corner (Fig. 478). 





Fig. 476 



Fig. 477 



A warped board can often be straightened by heating or wetting (or 
both) one side. Experiment will fix this in the mind best. These methods 
work quicker with thin wood than with thick, but do not feel sure that 
the result will be lasting. A board can be soaked or pressed into shape 



operations in Shaping, Fitting, and Finishing 167 

between clamps or under a weight, and left until thoroughly dry. It is 
often well to bend a piece more than required, to allow for the tendency 
to spring back when released. Laying a board on a fiat surface will often 
cause it to warp (thin wood quicker than thick), because the two sides are 




Fig. 478 

unequally exposed to the atmosphere. Planing off one side only, or planing 
one side more than the other, often produces the same effect. 

133. Panelling and Door-making. — To prevent bad results from 
swelling, shrinking, and warping of wide sur- 
faces, the work may be framed in panels. The 
thin panel, fitting in the groove of the frame 
(Fig. 479), swells and shrinks, and often tends 
to warp and twist, but can not exert force 
enough to change the shape of the thick frame. 
It should fit closely in the groove, but be 
loose enough to slide in and out as it swells 
and shrinks. It should not extend to the 
bottom of the groove, but have room for 
expansion in width (Fig. 479, showing section 
on line AB). 



In nice work rub wax or tallow around the wrong 

edge of the panel before gluing the frame lest pjg_ .yg 

the panel become stuck. If it fits too tightly or 

becomes stuck it may buckle or split, or the frame be split or forced apart 
at the joints. If the door or surface to be panelled is too large for one panel, 




i68 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 



several are used, often elaborately arranged; but all panelled work is based 
on the same general principles. The best way to fasten the frames of doors 
and panels is by mortise and tenon (see page 144). 
This can be done by machinery. Dowelling is often 
used for small doors, but is inferior, as a rule. A 
common way to make light doors, panel-frames, and 
other similar framework, which is not to be subjected 
to much strain, is to run the grooves in the stiles (Fig. 
480) through to the ends and cut tongues or short 
tenons on the ends of the rails to fit them (Figs. 
481 and 482). The whole frame and panel can thus 
be fitted quickly and accurately with a circular-saw 
(page 89). Sometimes the grooving and mortising 
are combined, — an excellent way (Fig. 410). 




Fig. 480 




In using any of these methods mark one side of each piece for the 
face and one edge for the joint-edge (which 
should be the edge next the panel) , and lay 
out all the work from that side and edge 
only (Fig. 483) . If done by machine gauge 
from the face-side and joint-edge. Do not 
cut off the stiles to length at first (Fig. 
483). The projecting ends will be useful 
when you knock the frame apart for 
gluing, after first putting it together to 
see if everything fits, and the extra length 
makes the ends stronger for the mortising 
and fitting. The stiles are usually nar- 
rower than the rails and as a rule run the 
long way (Fig. 480), as in any common 
door. In laying out a door or panelled 
frame, place the stiles together, with the 
inside edges — the joint edges — uppermost 
and the face-sides outside, and square lines 
across the edges to mark the positions for the rails (Fig. 484) . Carry 



Fig. 481 




Fig. 482 



Operations in Shaping, Fitting, and Finishing 169 




Fig. 483 



these lines across the faces of the stiles and mark the rails and stiles 

with figures, letters, or some symbols to show the way they are to be 

fitted together (Fig. 483). 

Plane and smooth the panel and the inside 

edges of the frame (the edges which come next 

the panel) and fit the whole together, to see that 

everything is right before begining to glue. Then 

fit the panel in the grooves of the rails (Fig. 481), 

glue the tenons of one end of both rails and the 

grooves or mortises of the corresponding stile, 

and fit these parts into place (Fig, 482). Drive 

the rails home. Then glue and fit the other side of 

the frame in the same way (Fig. 485) — all being 

done as quickly as possible. Do not put any glue where it may 

cause the panel to stick. Finally clamp the frame securely (see 

Clamps, page 72). The tongued and 
grooved joint shown in the illustrations 
is not so good as a mortise and tenon, but 
can be used for a light door. Leave the 
Fig. 484 work to dry, and when dry remove the 

clamps. Saw off the ends of the stiles, 

and smooth the surface of the frame with the plane, scraper, and 

sandpaper. The end of a tenon is sometimes cut a little short and 

the mortise-hole on the outside edge 

plugged with a piece of wood, (page 189), 

with the grain running the same way as 

that of the stile (Fig. 486). The mortise 

is sometimes not cut through. Neither 

of these ways is so strong as a common 

mortise and tenon. 

Fig. 485 
In practical work it is best to make the 
grooving, or grooved and tongued joints, by machine. The beginner 
should, however, learn to do this by hand, with the planes made for 





170 A Shorter Course in Woodworking 

the purpose. The panel just shown (Fig. 479) is the simplest form. A 
panel is sometimes made flush with either side of the frame, by having a 
rabbet on that side (Fig. 487), but this can well be avoided by the 
beginner. The swelling or shrinking of the panel is an objection, as it is 
impossible to have it fit perfectly at all times. This difficulty can be 
avoided somewhat by making the panel thicker and grooving it 
as in Fig. 488. This is stronger and will show no crack. It is 
good for the lid of a box or desk, or any panel requiring 
strength. The surface of the frame must be finished before 
putting together, or shrinkage of the panel will show an 
unfinished strip. A panel can also be raised in the middle with a 
bevel or a curve around the edge (Fig. 489). Any combination 
of these forms can be used on the opposite sides. In nailing a moulding 
around a panel, nail it to the frame and not to the panel, for the shrinking 
of the latter may cause trouble. 




134. To Fit a Door. — Fit the edge which 1 — ^ "^ — I 
is to be hinged to the frame, then plane the top pj^ ^g^ 
until the first edge and the top both fit the frame, 

and so on until all four edges are fitted, trying -. 

the door in place as the planing proceeds. ' — ^ ^ — ' 

A door must be fitted loosely enough to swing ^ig. 488 

freely, and sometimes the edge which is not 
hinged is bevelled slightly to clear the frame. For Hinging see page 1 85. 

135. A Few Elementary Operations in Simple Carved Work. — 

The true carver can not get his inspiration 
I — ip^ ^-i^ — I from a book, nor even from a master, but 

must have in him that inspiration, artistic 

feeling, and power of execution, without which 

C yV' ^ I his work will not rise above the level of 

Pj g manual dexterity. No attempt can be made 

to teach the art of carving in a few pages, but 
it is well, however, to have some understanding of the methods by 
which the simpler forms in low rehef are shaped, for the general 
woodworker often has occasion to work wood into odd shapes. 



Operations in Shaping, Fitting, and Finishing 171 



Elementary practise in carving can well precede the more mechan- 
ical forms of woodwork, for the training of hand and eye and 
mind given by it are of great value, not merely in the way of 
general development, but as in- 
creasing one's ability to handle the 
more mechanical processes later. 

It is common to advocate be- 
ginning with soft wood, but there 
are some advantages in starting with 
good, clear-grained oak, not very 
hard. Pine, black walnut, mahog- 
any, cherry, and other woods can 
also be used, if straight-grained. 

The simplest tools are similar to 
other chisels and gouges, but are 
sharpened on both sides, and are of 
a great variety of sizes and degrees 
of curvature. The edges must be 
ground and whetted to be very 
keen, and kept so by frequent strop- 
ping. They should not be used for 
other work. 

A carver's bench is usually a 
little higher than a cabinet-maker's 
or a carpenter's, but a special 
bench is not necessary unless much 
carving is to be done, as it is easy 
to block up the work. The bench 

should face the light, which should come down on the work if pos- 
sible. Carving should be done standing, for it is hard to get the 
proper freedom of movement while sitting. A variety of holdfasts 
and clamping devices to keep the work in place are in use, but 
simple work can usually be held by the vises, clamps, wedges, etc., 
used in ordinary woodwork. 




Fig. 490 



172 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 



Lay the tools on the bench before you but behind the work, with 
the handles away from you, as it is quicker to pick them up by the 
blades and to select the tool required. It is well to have the handles 

of carving tools of differ- 
ent pattern from those 
of the other tools. 

The picture of what is 
to b e carved should b e 





Fig. 491 



Fig. 492 



clear and definite in the mind, lest the work become mere mechani- 
cal copying of a pattern. 

A simple flat outlined design can be 
done by lightly cutting the outline with 
such tools as will fit (Fig, 490), cutting 
only deeply enough to clearly mark the 
outline. Try to use gouges of such curva- 
ture that the successive cuts will run to- 
gether in smooth and fiowing lines. Or 
the design can be outlined with a very 
light cut made with the V- or parting- 
tool (Fig. 491). Then stamp the back- 
ground as in Fig. 492, with a carver's 
punch. For small places and corners 
use a nail filed from four sides to a point. 

To cut a simple scroll (Fig. 493), first roughly sketch the design 




Fig. 493 



Operations in Shaping, Fitting, and Finishing 173 



with chalk or pencil, and then go o-^^er it carefully with pencil. It 
is well at first to mark over the background (Fig. 490), as the beginner 





Fig. 494 



Fig- 495 



Clamp the wood firmly 



is apt not to distinguish the design clearly. 

so that both hands can be free. 

With a small gouge run a groove 

around the pattern, just outside 

of the line (Fig. 494), cutting in 

different directions when the grain 

requires. Remember to regard the 

grain of the pattern and not that 

of the background. Thus to cut 

the narrow band in Fig. 495 cut in 

different directions as shown. After 

thus roughly outlining the design 

(Fig. 494), carefully cut on the line 

down to the level of the background 

(Fig. 496) . The mallet can be used 

for this. It is not necessary to 

have a gouge to fit every curve 

exactly. For an outside curve a gouge flatter than the curve 




Fig. 496 



can be 



174 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 



used, and for an inside curve one "quicker" than the curve. As the 
groove first cut has removed most of the wood near the outHne, the 

chips will readily break off in the waste 
wood (Fig. 496), without damaging the 
part to be kept, as might happen if the 
grooving were omitted (Fig. 497). The 
remaining wood in the background can 



,-^ 





Fig. 497 



Fig. 498 



now be cut away, using as large a gouge as may be convenient (Fig. 

498), and finally smoothed 
with a flat gouge. The an- 
gles and corners must be cut 
with whatever tool will best 
do the work, but the wood 
should in all cases be re- 
moved by clean cutting and 
not by prying. Do not try 
to make the background ab- 
solutely true, as if done by 
machine. The slight irregu- 
^^' '*^^ larity or waviness which nat- 

urally results from, freehand work is proper in carved work. The 




Operations in Shaping, Fitting, and Finishing 175 




Fig. 500 



background can be stamped as before, or, as is more commonly- 
done, smoothed as nicely as may be with short cuts of a flat gouge. 
Little hollowing cuts as in Fig. 499 make 
a good background for many designs. 

After a design has thus been outlined and 
the background cut the raised parts require 
to be shaped. In a design like Fig. 492 there 
is little to do but to cut down where the 
parts overlap. Sometimes the outline is un- 
dercut by sloping the handle of the tool out- 
wards. When the design is to be moulded 
as begun in Fig. 500, for example, gouges 
of somewhat flatter curvature than those of 

the design are used. The cutting should be done with the grain, 
stopping and cutting the other way when the grain requires, on the 
principle shown in Fig. 495. 

The general process with all work in 
high relief and odd-shaped or projecting 
forms is first to remove the superfluous 
wood, " rough out" the shape with such 
gouges as may be required, and then 
cut the details. Sometimes much of the 
waste wood can be removed by sawing. 
In roughing off the wood, begin at points 
distant from the final shape and work 
toward it, so that the waste wood only 
will break off, without danger of damag- 
ing the part to be saved. Sometimes 
waste wood can be quickly and safely 
removed by the use of the bits and bit- 
stock. When some part projects much 
above the general surface, a piece, or 
pieces, can be glued on and carved afterwards, but gluing is not to 
be recommended unless necessary. 




Fig. 501 



176 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 




Fig. 502 



To shape the end of the arm of the corner-chair shown in Fig. 726 
first round the end with the band-saw or by hand (Fig. 501), and then 
cut down between the divisions of the design, as shown, thus removing 
the waste wood before trying to work the wood exactly to shape. 

In cutting a clawfoot as in Fig. 502, much of the 
waste wood can be removed by sawing as shown in 
Fig. 503 (see page 245.) The removal of the waste 
wood and roughing out can be begun as in Fig. 504, 
and the rest of the shaping done on the general princi- 
ples already described. 

In all cases remember to remove the wood by cut- 
ting, and never pry or tear it away. Also, learn at 
the start to work either right or left handed and to 
cut in any direction. The direction of the lines of the design and of 
the grain require continual change in the direction of the cutting, and 
it is not practicable to keep turning the work, 

therefore one must become 
ambidextrous in using the 
tools. Push with the hand 
which grasps the handle, 
check and control with the 
hand which governs the 
blade. (See under Chisel, 
page 31.) When the push- 
ing force of the hand is 
not sufficient, a slight blow 
can be given the tool handle with the hand, but it is usually bet- 
ter to use the mallet. 

Do not try to scrub carved work smooth with sandpaper. Leave 
it as the tool leaves it. A touch with sandpaper is sometimes per- 
missable to remove a too sharp edge. Finish carved work either with 
wax or very thin shellac, never with varnish or a thick coating of 
shellac. A brush is the best thing for cleaning, rubbing over, and 
polishing carving. 





Fig. 503 



Fig. 504 



operations in Shaping, Fitting, and Finishing 177 



The variety of odd-shaped carving tools occasionally used by carvers 
is very great, but for the work of the beginner or the general woodworker 
only a few of the simplest kinds are needed. A couple of skew-chisels, half 
a dozen gouges, a V-tool, veining-tool, and a couple of straight-chisels 
are enough to do a great deal of simple work. More can be added when 
needed. The outside of a carving gouge or parting-tool is sharpened much 
the same as other tools, but the inside bevel is made by rubbing with a slip 
shaped to fit the tool. 

136. Counterboring is often done when the width of the piece to 
be bored through is not too great (Fig. 505). In boring with auger- 
bits the larger hole is bored first and then the 
smaller. If the smaller were bored first, there 
would be no wood for the worm of the larger 
bit to be screwed into, and it would be hard 
to bore accurately or even at all. To coun- 
terbore when the small hole is already bored 
a metal plug with a soft centre can be inserted 
in the hole for the worm to screw into (Fig. 
506). See also Screw-pocket, page 254. 




Fig. 505 




Fig. 506 



137. Veneering. Veneers are sawed or sliced 
very thin from valuable logs, and are used to 
cover the surface of cheaper wood. 

Veneering on a large scale is not suitable work 
for the beginner, but small plain work can be 
successfully done if sufficient care be taken. Ve- 
neering should be done upon soft straight-grained wood which is not liable 
to warp or twist and is free from knots, as clear pine. The surface to be 
veneered and the under side of the veneer are first toothed with the toothing- 
plane (page 41). The surface to be veneered is sized with thin glue, which 
is allowed to dry. 

The veneer, which should be cut a little too large, is dampened with hot 
water on the upper side and the glue then applied to the other side. Next 
the surface to be veneered is glued and the veneer put in place. The whole 
operation should be done as quickly as possible. To keep the veneer firmly 
in place until the glue has set strongly, it is pressed and held by a caul or 



178 A Shorter Course in Woodworking 

mould previously fitted to the surface and secured by clamps. The caul 
can be made of wood or of metal, should be heated and the surfaces soaped 
to prevent sticking. For very small fiat work or patching, a fiatiron can 
be used. 

Veneers are also laid with a veneering hammer, which is held near the 
head with the handle turned away from the operator, pressed down hard 
and worked over the surface from the centre to the edges, forcing out the 
glue. The surface is finally dampened and wiped with a dry cloth. The 
use of the hammer requires considerable skill and experience. 

138. Inlaying can be done by cutting out depressions or recesses in the 
surface of the wood and fitting in with glue pieces of wood or other substance 
of the shapes required by the pattern. The parts to be inlaid are got out 
of thin material in the required shape, the recesses carefully outlined, and 
the wood removed with chisels or router. If curved, the parts to be inlaid 
can be sawed with a bracket or coping saw (page 30). If both pieces can 
be sawed, place the piece to be inlaid on top and saw both together. 
The saw-table should be very slightly tilted, or if a bracket-saw be used it 
should be tipped outward at the top, so that when the parts are separated 
the upper piece will fit tightly in the opening made in the lower one, thus 
avoiding the loose fitting which would result if the saw were held vertically. 
The degree to which the saw or table should be tilted depends upon the 
thickness of the stock and of the saw. Much inlaying is easily done in this 
way with veneer or very thin stock, the inlaid piece being first glued in 
place and then the whole glued upon the surface of the work (see Veneering, 
page 177). 

139. Lattice Work, fence pickets, and such regular work is easiest nailed 
by using a piece of wood of the same width as the space between the strips, 
and holding it beside each strip as a guide by which to nail the next one. 

140. Shingling. — Begin shingling at the eaves and work upward. 
Lay a row the length of the roof, letting the butts slightly overhang 
the edge. On this row lay another, breaking joints with those under- 
neath; that is, lay the first row double, but so that the spaces between 
the shingles of the lower layer are covered by the shingles of the upper 
layer. Leave a slight space (perhaps |" to |") between the shingles 
in laying them. This gives room for swelling and allows the water to 



Operations in Shaping, Fitting, and Finishing 179 

run off freely. If the edges are close together at the lower end, the 
tendency is to dam up these water-courses and retain the moisture, 
which is injurious. Fasten each shingle with two shingle nails (one 
near each edge, within perhaps i"), far enough up from the butt to be 
covered by the next row of shingles. Lay the butts of each row by a 
chalkline or against the edge of a narrow board, which can be adjusted 
and temporarily held in place by two strips nailed to it and to the 
ridge of the roof. Common shingles (16" long) can be laid about 4 Yi' 
to the weather ; that is, with that portion of the length exposed at the 
butt. If shingles of extra length are used this distance can be varied 
accordingly. Trim off the upper ends of the top row of shingles and 
put on saddle-boards at the top, letting the edge of one overlap the 
other. 

Cut nails are better than wire nails for shingling, as the latter rust 
away quickly. The best cedar or cypress shingles are not too good for any 
building where durability is of importance. Spruce is poor for shingles. 
Small knots or defects at the thin ends, where they will be covered by two 
or three layers, do no harm in ordinary work. Sapwood is objectionable 
as it is apt to rot before the rest. 

141. Clapboarding. — Door- and window-casings, cornerboards, and 
such outside finish should first be put on. Clapboarding, unlike 
shingHng, is usually begun at the top. Lay the upper row by a line, 
as in shingling (page 178), keeping the clapboards in place by a few 
nails in the upper part only. Then slip the next row up from below 
under the first row until only the desired width is exposed. Nail the 
first row near the lower edge with clapboard nails. This will hold the 
second row in position while the third row is put in place, and so on. 
The thin edge of the upper row can be covered by a strip of board or 
moulding. Clapboarding can be continued to the bottom of the 
building; or, if a water-table is used at the bottom (Fig. 507), the lower 
edge of the last row of clapboards should be bevelled to fit the upper 
edge of the water-table. Lay clapboards in line and at equal dis- 
tances apart, as variations in the alignment are quite noticeable. 



i8o 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 



Break joints at the ends; that is, do not have the joints of one row 
in line with, or very near, those of the next row, above or below. Mark 
the ends accurately, using the try-square, and saw them carefully 
with a fine saw, trying to make as close joints as pos- 
sible. A few defects in clapboards near the thin edges 
which are to be covered may do no serious harm for 
common work. Siding shaped as in Fig. 508 is some- 
times used. 

142. Flashing. — The tops of win- 
dow- and door-casings and all similar 
joints should be protected by strips 
of sheet-lead, the upper edges of 
which are slipped up under the clap- 
boarding (Fig. 509) or the shingles, 
thus covering the crack where the 
casing joins the side of the build- 
Fig. 507 Fig. 508 ing, and shedding the water. 
This is important, as the rain 
will drive through such cracks, even though they seem tight. 
Tonguing and grooving (page 156) can be used in such cases, but 
flashing with lead is a simpler process. The same precaution should 
be taken where roofs or other attachments join a building. Zinc and 
even tin can be used, but are inferior to lead. Copper is good but 
expensive. 

143. Repairing Furniture. — To repair thoroughly and leave no 
sign of the mending often requires more skill and ingenuity and more 
general knowledge of woodworking than to make new articles. To 
give complete directions for repairing would be to describe the majority 
of operations used in woodworking. One or two suggestions may, 
however, be of use. 




Fig. 509 



To replace the arm of a chair, for example, first clean off all the old glue, 
next make the parts fit together, adding new wood if necessary, and finally 



Operations in Shaping, Fitting, and Finishing i8i 



contrive some arrangement — hand-screws, clamps, a rope twisted, or some 
other device — to hold the parts firmly in place while the glue is 
drying. 

The suggestion in Fig. 510 may be of use in curved or angular 
work. Rubbing chalk on the inside of the jaws of hand-screws helps 
to prevent their slipping. 

In patching holes and defects in old work with new wood, the wood 
should match if possible. Trim off the new pieces after they have been 
glued in place rather than before, as 
a rule, but not until the glue has 
dried thoroughly. Staining (page 
189) to match the older parts is of- 
ten required. A repaired joint may 
not be quite so strong as a new one, 
therefore it is well to reinforce it 
with a block or brace glued and 
screwed on the under or inner side, 
where this can be done without 
showing, as inside the frame of a 
chair, sofa, or table. 

If a tenon be too small, glue on 
thin pieces to make it larger, trim- 
ming them afterwards to fit. If this 
can not be done, wrap a little muslin, 

laid in glue, around the tenon. This can sometimes be done with round pins 
or dowels. Splitting and wedging tenons and dowels is often useful in re- 
pairing (pages 149 and 152). If necessary to use screws where the heads will 
show, first make, if possible, with bit or chisel a neat round or square hole 
of sufficient diameter to admit the head of the screw and deep enough to 
allow a plug of the same kind of wood to be inserted after the screw has 
been driven (see page 189). 

144. Glue and Its Use. — Glue is made from refuse animal matter 
or from parts of fish. It comes in sheets or cakes or flakes or ground, 
to be dissolved and used hot, or in liquid form to be used cold. Hot 
glue is preferable for nice work if all conditions are as they should be, 
otherwise, cold glue may be better. In either case, buy the best 




Fig. 510 



i82 A Shorter Course in Woodworking 

grade. Do not use glue that has a mouldy or otherwise disagreeable 
smell. 

The only sure test is to get a little and try it. Glue end- wood under 
pressure after sizing (see page 184), leave until hard, and see how much 
force is required to break the joint. Soak glue over night, or as long as may 
be necessary, in as much water as you think it will absorb. The more it 
will swell without dissolving, the better the quality. You cannot tell good 
glue by the color, for there are many kinds and many makers ; but it should 
be clear looking. 

The Glue-pot is made of copper, iron, or tin, and is like the "double 
boiler" used in kitchens to prevent overheating. It should have a 
cover. 

Glue-brush. — Brushes are made especially for glue. A good one can 
be made of a stick of rattan. Soften the end in hot water and pound 
it with the hammer until the fibres separate. For corners, cracks, and 
holes, use sticks, whittled to the required shape. 

Preparation and Use of Glue. — To prepare glue hot, break it 
into small pieces, soak it in all the cold water it will absorb for 
perhaps twelve hours, then put it in the glue-pot and boil the water 
in the outer vessel for several hours. When cooked the glue should 
be thin enough to drip from the brush in a streamlet, without col- 
lecting in drops, — about the consistency of thin cream. Glue is oftener 
used too thick than too thin, but do not weaken it by diluting with 
more water than is necessary. Glue loses strength by repeated melt- 
ings, so clean out the glue-pot after every second or third using. For 
very nice work, clean it out every time. 

Wood is filled with pores, or spaces between the fibres, and it is 
into these that the glue works, reaching from the cavities in one sur- 
face into the cavities in the other, thus getting a firm grip on the wood. 
Therefore the pieces should be pressed or clamped together as tightly 
as possible to force the glue into the wood, and not leave it in a layer 
between the two pieces, where it would be more exposed to the atmos- 
phere. The wood should be warm, as well as the glue hot, so that 



operations in Shaping, Fitting, and Finishing 183 

the pores may be thoroughly penetrated before the glue "sets." 
Gluing should be done in a warm room of an even temperature. 

With hot glue the positions of the pieces must not be changed 
after putting them together, but with cold glue considerable time can 
be taken to get them into position. Where several parts of the work 
have to be glued at the same time it may be hard to apply all the hot 
glue before that first put on begins to set, unless you have help. In 
such cases, cold glue is better. Again, if the shop is not warm or if 
you cannot have the glue hot, use the other. This takes much longer 
to set than the hot glue. In cold weather it should be slightly warmed 
and it is best to warm the wood also. It may be thinned with vinegar 
or acetic acid (which keeps it liquid without putrefaction), or with 
water if you are to use it at once; but do not pour water into the 
stock-can of liquid glue. 

Before beginning to glue have everything laid out, fit the pieces 
together, clamp them up as if you had put on the glue (see Clamps, 
page 72), and be sure that everything comes together right. It is 
particularly necessary thus to rehearse the process when there are 
several pieces to be glued, for there is no time to be lost when once you 
have begun to glue, and it will then be too late to correct mistakes 
in the fitting. Brush all dirt from the surfaces to be joined. Do 
not spread the glue on too thick. While applying it to one piece, let 
the other be warming near the fire.^ The moment the glue on the 
brush leaves the pot it begins to cool. If it fairly begins to set before 
you get the two pieces together, the joint will not be good. Do not 
wipe off the glue which oozes from a glued joint, but let it harden, 
as it will protect the joint. After the piece has set several hours the 
surplus can be cleaned off. If necessary to remove it while fresh, 
wet a cloth with hot water, wring it dry, and wipe the joint. Glued 
joints should not be planed until the water in the glue has had time to 
evaporate. 

No exact time limit can be set for leaving the clamps on glued 
work. This should depend on the kind of work, the kind of wood, 

' To warm small pieces, a large box warmed by steam or other heat is convenient* 



i84 A Shorter Course in Woodworking 

and other circumstances. Twelve hours is usually long enough for 
common work in soft wood and with hot glue. Although glue dries 
quickly to the touch, it takes some time for it to become actually hard. 
More time should be allowed for hard wood than for soft. Large 
blocks and pieces glued flatways require more time than thin stuff. 
Liquid glue sets more slowly, and twenty-four hours is usually as 
short a time as should be allowed. Warm, dry air assists the harden- 
ing. Under unfavorable conditions cold glue may not harden for 
several days. Rub wax, soap, or tallow on any part which must not 
be stuck by the surplus glue, as in the case of a panel (see page 167). 

In gluing pieces where the surface is to be finally planed, glue first 
and plane afterwards, taking care to have the grain of both pieces 
run in the same direction if possible. The best way is to glue up the 
rough boards before they have been planed at all, and then have the 
whole planed as one piece, by machine, to the required thickness. 

To glue the ends of pieces (end-wood) together, first size with thin 
glue to stop the pores, else the glue will be soaked up too quickly. 
Then, after allowing this coat to stand, smooth off to the wood and 
glue in the ordinary way. But glued joints in end-wood are to be 
avoided. 

It is easier to make good joints in soft wood than in hard, for the former 
is more easily planed and fitted. When the grain of the pieces is similar 
and runs in the same direction the joint is usually best. Fine-grained and 
coarse-grained pieces do not glue together so firmly as pieces of similar 
fibre. It is best to do gluing either on horses or on a special cheap bench 
used for gluing only, to save the regular work bench. A great deal of glued 
work comes apart sooner or later. Remember that wood changes shape 
with the heat, cold, and moisture. 

Wide pieces of very thin stock, as veneers, can be successfully glued 
flatways, with the grain of the different pieces running at right angles, as 
is seen in the prepared chair-seats made of layers of veneering, but when the 
stock has any considerable thickness this cannot be done with safety, 
as the expansion and contraction will cause breaking or splitting. It is 
not necessary, however, for the grain of two pieces to be exactly parallel. 



Operations in Shaping, Fitting, and Finishing 185 

In gluing two pieces to make a thicker one, as in Fig. 511, where warping 

would be very undesirable, the rear piece can be turned slightly as in Fig. 

512, and this difference in 

direction of the grain will 

often help much to prevent 

warping. 

Although two pieces 
properly glued together 
are stronger than a single 
piece, glue is apt to dete- 
riorate. It is safer to use a 

whole piece where you can, except where, to prevent warping, it may be 
better to build up the desired shape of pieces selected for the purpose. 
It is safest to place no reliance upon glue where the work is to be ex- 
posed to dampness or to the weather. 






Fig. 511 



Fig. 512 






145. Hardware Fittings. — It is well to have the hardware on 
hand, or selected, when laying out a piece of work. 

146. Hinge-fitting. — Common hinges, as in Fig. 513, look 
neatest when narrower than the thickness of the stock (unless the 

latter is quite thin), so as not to extend across 
the edge, and should be sunk in the wood, one 
half in each of the parts to be hinged. In the 
case of a box. Fig. 643, for example, place the 
lid exactly in position (shut), and mark with a 
knife directly from each hinge, on both box and 
cover at the same time, the points from which to 
lay out the recesses for the hinges. Remove the 
lid and with knife or square and gauge outline on box and lid the 
recess in which the hinge is to fit, so that the centre of the pin of 
the hinge will be in line with the back of the box (Fig. 513), or some- 
times a little outside (Fig. 514). Set the gauge for the width to be 
cut as in Fig. 515, gauging to the centre of the pin, and for the depth 
close the hinge until the flaps are parallel and gauge to the middle of 
the space (Fig. 516). A butt-gauge is made for such work. Re- 



Fig- 513 



Fig. 514 



1 86 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 




move the wood with the chisel. Cross cuts can be made first, as 
in Fig. 451, or notch as in Fig. 517, and then pare the wood to the 
Hne with the chisel. The router can be used in fitting hinges. Bore 

with bradawl, drill, or bit, for 
the screws. Hold the hinges 
in place with two or three 
screws each and see whether 
the cover opens and shuts 
properly. If it does, put in 
the rest of the screws. If it 
does not, it is easier to make 
alterations before all the screws 
have been inserted. The po- 
Fig. 515 sition of the hinge can be 

changed a trifle, as it is screwed 
in place, by boring the screw holes nearer the requisite edge of 
the hinge. Strap or surface hinges, T-hinges, or the like are placed 
so that the centre of the pin is ex- 
actly opposite the crack and then 
screwed on. 

147. To Hinge or "Hang" a 
Door. — Put the door in place, fitting 
snugly against the frame or casing on 
the hinge side and on top. Mark 
with the knife the places for the 
hinges on both 
door and 
frame. The 
places for 
hinges can also 
be marked on 

a stick. Mark the outlines, on both door and frame as already de- 
scribed, cut the gains, and put on the hinges. If the door and the 
casing are not flush, allowance must be made for this in gauging for 





Fig. 517 



Fig. 516 



operations in Shaping, Fitting, and Finishing 187 

one side of the hinge. Some door hinges or butts have the pin loose so 
that each half of the hinge can be fitted and screwed on separately and 
then the pin put in or withdrawn at will. 

148. Locks. — Use locks of good quality. There are so many 
varieties, some to be screwed on the outside of the wood, others to be 
sunk in recesses cut in the side of the wood, others still to be let into 
mortises, chest-locks, door-locks, cupboard-locks, drawer-locks, etc., 
that it will be well to examine a well-fitted lock like the one you have 
to fit. 

To fit a chest- or box-lock (not a mortise-lock), place it in position. 
Determine the place for the keyhole, and bore it. Mark around the part 
to be sunk in the wood, and cut it out with gouge and chisel. Trim the 
keyhole to a neat outline to conform to the shape of the key. When the 
lock has been screwed in place, put the "hasp," or part to be fastened to 
the lid, into its place in the lock, where it will be when the chest is closed. 
Then shut the lid, and press slightly to make a mark to help show where to 
put the hasp, or transfer-paper can be put between the hasp and the wood, 
or blackened grease rubbed on the plate of the hasp. Sometimes the hasp 
has points to prick the wood. Outline the place for it with knife, square, 
and gauge, sink the plate into the lid flush with the surface, and screw it in 
place. A mortise-lock is fitted in a similar way, but let into a mortise. 

To fit a common drawer-lock, determine the place for the keyhole 
and bore it. Hold the lock in position on the inside and with a pencil mark 
the outline of the box-part of the lock, which bears against the wood, and 
cut the recess for it. Put the lock into place and mark the outline of 
the outer plate on the inside of the drawer front and on the top edge. The 
thickness of the metal must be allowed for both on the inside and on the 
edge, that the surface of the plate may be flush with the wood. Pare away 
the wood carefully with the chisel to let the plate sink flush. When the 
keyhole is shaped, see if the lock works before screwing it on. Close the 
drawer and turn the key hard to raise the bolt (the top of which has been 
previously rubbed with blackened grease, such as can be scraped from an 
oilstone), which, pressing against the wood, will mark the place for the 
mortise into which it is to slide. Cut this mortise and the drawer can be 
locked. 



1 88 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 





Fig. 518 



Fig- 519 



149. Mirror-plates, screw-hooks, etc. — Mirror-plates are to fasten 
mirrors, cabinets, etc., to the wall, and should be sunk flush with the back-side 
of the wood (Fig. 518). They are usually of brass. The points for boring 
in fitting a screw-hook and screw-eye can be 
determined as suggested in Fig. 519. L- or 
corner-irons are often useful, as to strength- 
en a sled. Casters. — The way to put casters 
on is usually obvious. Use strong ones. 
Those with ferrules or outside sockets are 

serviceable for good work. A 

great variety of casters is made 

with ball bearings. Escutcheons 

are plates screwed, nailed, or 

set in holes, at keyholes, for 

ornament. They are commonly 

fastened with round-headed 

escutcheon pins or screws. Slip 

the key through the escut- 
cheon, put it in the lock, and you can readily find the position for the 
escutcheon. 

150. Finishing. — Before applying any finishing coat to nice work, 
see that the surface of the wood has been thoroughly smoothed, and 
all hardened glue carefully removed. Try to take out any bruise 
or dent in the wood by wetting with warm water — or even cold — 
and rubbing down with sandpaper. The operation can be repeated 
until it has no further effect. If that is not sufficient, cover the bruise 
with wet blotting paper or several thicknesses of wet brown paper 
and apply a hot fiatiron. This will often swell the compressed wood 
sufficiently to remove a large dent. Where a piece of wood has been 
taken out, as when a notch has been cut, this process can not be 
depended on. 

Small holes or cracks can often be filled with wood-dust and glue. 
Put a daub of hot glue on the smooth end of a piece of wood of the same 
kind as the article, and with a sharp chisel, held nearly at right angles 
to the surface, scrape off fine wood-dust, which, mixed with the glue, 



operations in Shaping, Fitting, and Finishing 189 

will form a paste with which the cracks can be more than filled. When 
hard, smooth off. Plaster of Paris (calcined plaster), mixed with 
shellac or thin hot glue, and colored if desired, can be used to fill 
cracks and holes. Mixed with water only, it is not so good. Shellac, 
in stick form, can be melted over a candle and dropped into holes or 
cracks, 

A hole or defective place can often be filled best with a plug of wood, 
with the grain running the same way as that of the main piece. Make 
the plug and taper it slightly, so that when driven it will fit tightly 
and project above the surface (Fig. 520). Cut or 
trim the hole to fit the plug. Dip the plug in hot 
glue, and drive well in. If it is liable to be injured by 
the hammer, place a block on it and strike the block. 
When dry smooth off. In nice work the plug should 
match the color, texture, and grain of the rest of the 
wood. Round plugs can be bought or made with a 
cutter, to fit holes bored with the bits. Cracks at 
the end of a piece can often be plugged, and also pig. 520 

secured against further splitting, by making a 
straight saw-kerf in the crack, into which a slip of wood can be fitted 
and glued. 

After the surface is in proper condition, decide whether the wood 
is to be left of the natural color (which always darkens more or less 
with exposure, and is darkened slightly by even the most transparent 
finish), or to be darkened or stained. 

Staining. — Good wood of a handsome color, left to mellow with 
age, is, as a rule, preferable to stained wood, but staining is often 
desirable. 

There are a number of ways of staining, dependent upon chemical 
processes carried on in the wood itself, which do not obscure the grain 
of the wood, but tend to make it more conspicuous. The surface can 
also be washed with some thin stain which colors the wood to some 
distance below the surface, so that it will take considerable bruising 
to expose its original color. This method sometimes enhances the 




1 90 A Shorter Course in Woodworking 

beauty of the grain. The poorest way to stain, but a common one 
with amateurs and in cheap work, is to cover the surface with colored 
varnish, "varnish stain," or colored shellac. Of course, no coating 
of color put on outside can be so durable as color imbedded in the 
substance of the wood, and scarring or injury to the coating exposes 
the original color beneath. Besides, the grain and character of the 
wood are obscured by a colored coating, and the work usually has a 
cheap, artificial appearance. To change the color entirely, — to make 
pine wood red or green, or cherry black, — you must use some chemical 
process, or apply a colored stain. 

Before using stains, test them on planed and smoothed pieces of 
waste wood of the same kind as the article to be finished. 

If you do not care about deepening the color greatly, one or two 
applications of linseed oil allowed to stand a week or two before 
finishing, will take off the raw, fresh look peculiar to recently cut 
wood. ^ To hasten the process requires something stronger than oil. 
If the work is of oak, shut it up for some time in a box or tight closet, 
with a dish of strong ammonia on the floor. A simpler way is to wash 
the work with ammonia, more than once if necessary. Have the 
room well ventilated, and do not inhale the fumes. Wetting the wood, 
however, tends to soften the glue, and also "raises the grain, " which 
must be rubbed down with fine sandpaper before finishing. In case 
of quartered oak, if it is desired to make the "flashes" especially 
prominent they can be rubbed carefully with the finest sandpaper 
after staining. 

To deepen the color of mahogany or cherry, wash with lime-water 
(a solution of common lime in water). Repeat the operation until 
the desired shade is obtained. This is cheap and effective and pre- 
serves the natural appearance of the wood. Clean out all cracks and 
corners thoroughly, for lime deposited on the surface will injure the 

' Repeated applications of raw linseed oil at intervals of several days or weeks, with a 
light rubbing down with fine sandpaper before each oiling, will in time give a surface of 
beautiful color and soft lustre. But this takes too long for most people and a finish of oil 
alone is apt to collect dust. 



Operations in Shaping, Fitting, and Finishing 191 

appearance of the work when finished. Getting the work so wet is an 
objection. It must be thoroughly dry and be sandpapered before 
finishing. To get a darker shade, use a solution of bichromate of 
potash in water. Dragon's blood in alcohol gives a color similar to 
mahogany. Vandyke brown or burnt umber can be added. Alkanet 
root in raw linseed oil will give a warm and mellow hue to mahogany 
or cherry. 

Any pigment or coloring substance that can be dissolved in water, 
or even mechanically mixed with it, can be used for staining. Such 
stains raise the grain of the wood, so that the surface has to be sand- 
papered after it is dry. To lessen this trouble it is sometimes damp- 
ened with water and, after drying, sandpapered before applying the 
stain. Water stains are as a rule not so good for nice work as tur- 
pentine, oil, or alcohol stains, but they are inexpensive and do well 
for much work. For a brown stain a little extract of logwood dis- 
solved in hot water and applied hot can be used. For black or eboniz- 
ing, apply solution of logwood and wash with vinegar in which iron 
filings have been soaked, or a black aniline dye in ammonia or 
alcohol can be used. 

Oil stains are easy to apply, and do not raise the grain of the wood 
much. They should be wiped off and, after thoroughly drying, the 
surface sandpapered with "00" sandpaper. 

Many excellent stains are made with alcohol. These penetrate 
the wood well. 

Turpentine stains are good for ordinary work. Any pigment or 
coloring substance which can be dissolved in turpentine, or mechani- 
cally mixed with it can be used. Turpentine penetrates the wood 
well and dries quickly. Mix pigment of the desired color with a little 
oil, and a very little Japan, and thin with turpentine. For black work, 
ivory black or bone black, thinned with turpentine, is superior to 
lamp black, but the latter can be used. After staining, rub with a 
soft cloth before finishing. A great variety of prepared stains, many 
of which are excellent, can be bought ready for use. 

Fillers. — After the matter of color has been attended to, if the 



192 A Shorter Course in Woodworking 

wood is of coarse open grain, as oak or chestnut, the pores should 
be filled with some "filler." This can be bought in the form of 
paste (different colors — either light or dark), and used according to 
the directions on the can. Rub the filler into the wood thoroughly, 
let it stand until it begins to set, or stiffen, and then rub it off 
with a bit of burlap or any coarse material, across the grain (lest 
you wipe it out of the pores). After it has become hard enough, 
sandpaper carefully until no filler remains on the surface. A second 
coat can be used if necessary. The filler can be as light as the wood, 
or often, as in Oak, the figure of the grain can be brought out best by 
using a filler darker than the wood. Clean off the filler thoroughly, 
using a blunt tool to clean out the angles and corners, or the finished 
surface will have a cloudy appearance. The rags used should be 
burned. Liquid fillers can be put on with a brush, allowed to dry 
for a day, and then rubbed down with fine sandpaper. Thin shellac 
makes an excellent filler for fine-grained wood. 

Use of shellac, wax, varnish, e/c.-r-Final finishing coats may be ap- 
plied in various ways. For furniture and articles for indoor use there 
is no better way for the beginner than to use shellac or wax. Shellac 
forms a hard and durable coating which can be given a high polish or 
a soft lustre and dull finish. The surface dries quickly and the coat 
hardens more rapidly than varnish.' A good simple finish is to oil 
the wood (raw linseed oil slightly thinned with turpentine) , let it dry 
thoroughly, and then apply shellac. 

Shellac is cut (dissolved) in alcohol, and can be bought prepared, but 
to cut it yourself lessens the chance of adulteration. Orange shellac will 
do for most work. Into an open-mouthed bottle put some of the shellac 
(which comes in flakes and looks somewhat like glue) and pour over it 
enough grain alcohol (95 per cent, grade) to somewhat more than cover it. 
Cork the bottle and leave in a warm place until the shellac is cut. Shaking 
will hasten the process. Wood alcohol can be used and is cheaper, but 

• Shellac is, strictly speaking, a kind of varnish, but it is so different from many kinds of 
varnish in common use that it is usually spoken of as shellac, in distinction from what is 
popularly known as varnish. 



Operations in Shaping, Fitting, and Finishing 193 



work done with it is not so good. It is a deadly poison, and on account of 
the fumes it is best not to use it long in a closed room. Denatured alcohol 
is much better than wood alcohol, but is also poisonous. If the tawny tint 
of orange shellac is objectionable, white (bleached) shellac can be used. 
It is well to buy this already prepared. It is a little harder to use than the 
colored kind. Shellac keeps better in glass than in tin. 

Use a flat bristle brush and not a soft camel's-hair brush, unless for the 
last coat. One inch to two inches in width is suitable for small work. 
For large surfaces, a larger brush is better. After using, clean the brush 
thoroughly with alcohol. 

The shellac should be quite thin, and should flow freely from the 
brush. It is better to have it too thin than too thick. Three or four 
thin coats give a much better re- 
sult than two coats of thick, 
gummy shellac. Never thin it 
with anything but alcohol. Keep 
the bottle corked to prevent 
evaporation and to keep out dust. 
Shellac in a warm, dry place, 
free from dust, — never where it is 
cold and damp; but do not leave 
the work close to a hot stove or 
in the hot rays of the sun, or it may 
blister. Before beginning to shel- 
lac see that the work is free from 
dust. Pour a little shellac into a 

small dish. Before applying to the wood, wipe the surplus shellac 
from the brush on the edge of the dish, or better, on a wire stretched 
across it. Face the light, so that you can see what you are doing, 
and lay on the shellac as evenly and smoothly as possible, working from 
the top or from one end or side, and with the grain. ' Work lengthways 

' In shellacking doors or panel-work, first shellac the panels, then the rails, and finally 
the stiles (see Fig. 480), because daubs or "runs" can be wiped off and covered better 
when you thus follow the construction of the work. 




Fig. 521 



194 A Shorter Course in Woodworking 

(as in Fig. 521) rather than across the surface. It is better to have the 
surface in a horizontal position when possible, but if that cannot be ar- 
ranged, begin at the upper part and work downward. Do not apply the 
brush at first quite at the edge of the surface, lest the shellac collect 
too thickly there. Work quickly and carefully. Begin and end each 
stroke of the brush gradually and Hghtly, so as to avoid a "lap" 
where the strokes meet. If surplus shellac collects and spreads over 
any part of the surface, wipe the brush quickly, as dry as you can, 
and lightly and quickly take up the surplus liquid; but do not work 
over the coat after it has begun to set, or try to patch up spots. Lay 
it on as well as you can and let it go. You will know how to do better 
the next time. 

Give each coat plenty of time to harden before applying another, — 
twenty -four hours is not too long. The outer coat hinders the drying 
of the shellac underneath, by keeping the air from it. Shellac dries 
very quickly to the touch, but does not get really hard for some time. 
If there are holes, cracks, or defects not yet filled up, they can be 
filled with wax colored to match the wood. Melt the wax and add a 
small quantity of whatever dry color — burnt umber, for instance — 
may be required. Another way is to hold a hot iron close to a piece 
of shellac directly over the hole, which will be filled with the melted 
shellac. This is better for dark-colored wood than for light. The 
surplus can be carefully pared off after it is hard. Use putty for 
painted work only. 

When the first coat is hard, skim over the surface with very fine 
sandpaper (00) to remove any roughness, and apply a second coat. 
This is sometimes sufficient. If not, sandpaper and shellac again, 
and a fourth time if necessary. When you have a sufficient " body" 
of shellac on the wood, you can much improve the surface by rubbing 
it down with powdered pumice and oil, which will remove the "shiny " 
effect and leave a softer surface. Take a bit of felt or haircloth, wet 
it with thin oil (kerosene, or petroleum or linseed oil thinned with 
turpentine) , take up a little of the pumiice on the felt, and carefully 
rub over the surface, with the grain, renewing the oil and pumice 



Operations in Shaping, Fitting, and Finishing 195 

as may be needed, or they can be sprinkled on the work. Pumice 
can be sprinkled on from a can with perforated top. Rub evenly and 
not too long on any one spot, for it will be almost impossible to repair 
the damage if you rub through to the wood. Wipe off thoroughly 
with a soft cloth. ^ 

This process is sufficient for ordinary work. For some work simply 
rubbing down with the finest sandpaper wet with oil is enough. The gen- 
eral principle is that as the surface becomes finer, finer rubbing material 
should be used. Pumice as well as sandpaper is of difi^erent grades, but the 
distinction concerns the expert finisher only. 

In using sandpaper for rubbing down nice work, split it by removing 
the outer layer of paper, which by leaving the sanded layer thin and pliable 
will make it less likely to scratch or rub through the finish. A handful of 
tightly squeezed curled hair, or a piece of haircloth, can be used instead of 
felt or sandpaper. If the shellac has collected too thickly at the edges or 
corners, the surplus can sometimes be taken off with the scraper; but this 
is hard to do without scraping too much. 

The general directions given for shellacking also apply to the use of 
varnish, but varnishing is in some respects harder for the beginner to do well. 
When a good article is to be varnished it is best to give it a coat of thin 
shellac first. This tends to prevent the wood being darkened by the varnish. 
Varnishing should be done in a warm room, free from dust, and the surface 
of the wood should be clean. There are many kinds of varnish and for 
many purposes. The final coat can be rubbed down with pumice or tripoli 
and water. Rotten-stone used with oil (petroleum is good) is excellent 
for giving a soft polish. If varnish is to be used over shellac, as in case of a 
boat, simply sandpaper the shellac and do not rub it with pumice and oil. 

French polishing is often attempted by the beginner, but should be 
learned from a practical polisher. A wad or pad of woollen cloth or cotton 
wool is made, and on this is poured thin shellac, adding whatever alcohol 
may be necessary. This wet pad is then covered with a piece of clean linen, 
a drop of linseed oil put on the outside to prevent the shellac from sticking, 
and the pad quickly passed over the surface with a circular motion, or with 
longer strokes in the form of the figure 8. After doing this for a while a 

' Fine sawdust of soft wood is good for removing oil and cleaning the surface, following 
with a soft cloth. 



196 A Shorter Course in Woodworking 

very thin coat will have been deposited. This is allowed to dry for a short 
time, when the process is repeated, until a sufficient body of the polished 
finish has been formed. The details vary with different finishers. It is 
quite easy to polish a small flat surface, the arm of a chair, for example; 
but it is hard for a beginner successfully to polish a large flat surface, like 
a table-top. A coating of shellac is usually put on in the ordinary way first 
and skimmed over with sandpaper, to save labor in the polishing process. 

Before refinishing old work it should, if the surface is in bad condition, 
be scraped down to the wood, using the scraper and finishing with sandpaper. 
A chisel (used like a scraper) is sometimes good to remove a thick body of 
old varnish. If the surface does not need scraping, it should be cleaned, 
either by washing with soapsuds or by scrubbing with the finest split sand- 
paper, using oil. The work must be wiped off clean and be perfectly dry 
before applying a new coat. Pumice can be used, as already described. 
A stiff brush, such as a nail- or tooth-brush, is excellent for cleaning out 
corners and carved work. A piece of haircloth can be tightly rolled, wound 
with string, and the end used as a brush. 

For simply brightening and cleaning furniture, a mixture of equal parts 
of linseed oil and turpentine with a very small quantity of Japan is excellent. 
It should be well rubbed in and carefully cleaned off. This will make 
scratches and bruises less conspicuous, and the article will look fresher for a 
time; but it is not a substitute for refinishing. 

An old-fashioned way to finish, but still in vogue, is to apply a 
mixture of turpentine and beeswax, which can be bought in cans, 
ready for use, rubbing it long and thoroughly. To prepare it, melt 
beeswax in a can or saucepan and, when taken from the stove, pour 
in enough turpentine to make it the consistency of paste. The surface 
of the wood must be very smooth for successfully finishing with wax. 
Apply with a brush or cloth, rub in well, and clean off the excess, 
scrubbing the work thoroughly. This makes a beautiful finish, soft 
and lustrous. It shows spots, however, and though it is easily applied, 
requires renewing and rubbing to be kept in good condition. A thin 
coat of shellac rubbed down with sandpaper when dry makes an 
excellent filler before applying a wax finish to coarse-grained wood. 

Painting. — Use the best paint throughout for good work. It 



Operations in Shaping, Fitting, and Finishing 197 

is particularly important that the first or "priming" coat should be of 
good quality. Be sure that wood is thoroughly seasoned before paint- 
ing, else it will be liable to decay, or the paint to peel, or both. See 
that the surface is free from dirt. Knots or streaks of resinous or pitchy 
matter should have a coat or two of shellac, to "kill" them and pre- 
vent colored spots showing later. Try to mix only enough paint for 
the coat you are about to put on. 

The first coat should be thin to soak into the surface, for the oil 
in the paint will be quickly drawn into the wood. If thick the paint 
will not be sufficiently absorbed, but the oil will soak in quickly, 
leaving too much of the pigment on the outside. Work the first 
coat well into the wood. Take up but little paint on the brush. 
It is well to have a wire stretched across the top of the pot to draw the 
brush over to remove any excess of paint. ^ Begin the painting at the 
highest part of the work, or the part farthest from you, to prevent 
spattering or dripping on the freshly covered surface. Begin, also, 
at one end or side of a surface, and work toward the other end or side. 
Draw the brush back and forth both ways to spread the paint as 
evenly and smoothly as possible. Try not to leave any part of a 
surface until another time, or it will be likely to show a "lap." This 
does not matter in the priming, but will show plainly in the later 
coats. If you cannot cover the work entirely at one time, leave off 
where there is some natural line or break in the work. 

When the first coat is thoroughly dry, carefully putty the holes 
and cracks. Never use putty until after one coat of paint has been 
applied and dried, for the fresh wood will quickly absorb the oil from 
the putty, leaving it dry and crumbly; while if a coat of paint has 
been put on first and dried, the pores of the wood will be stopped and 
most of the oil will remain and harden in the putty. 

Paint with the grain of the wood, or the long way of the work, 
using a large brush for large surfaces and finishing all corners, mould- 
ings, and edges with a small brush. In doors or panel-work, proceed 
as directed on page 193. Paint joints in outside work, tenons and 

' It is not well to wipe brushes on the sharp edge of a tin can, as it injures the bristles. 



198 A Shorter Course in Woodworking 

mortises, shoulders, etc., before putting together, with good white 
lead. It is well to do this in all work exposed to water and the weather, 
as in buildings and boats, for the wood quickly decays at the joints 
and seams because dampness collects there. 

Prepared liquid paints are the simplest, handiest, and cleanest for the 
beginner, and (if of the best quality) do very well for most purposes. For 
work exposed to the weather there is probably no better way than to use the 
best white lead and oil, and color if desired.' These ingredients can be 
mixed easily and form a durable and economical paint. The white lead 
can be bought ground in the form of paste ready to be thinned with oil, 
or, for inside work, with turpentine. The prepared paints of any color 
can also be bought in the form of paste, to be thinned when used. 

The simplest way to buy colored paints is in liquid form or mixed in 
oil, to be thinned, for use. Paint can easily be colored with various dry 
colors, in the form of powder. It takes but very little of most colors. 
First mix the color with a little oil or turpentine. Test the shade on a piece 
of wood. In making paint darker, especially when tinting white paint, 
be careful to add but very little of the darker pigment at first, and be sure 
that it is thoroughly mixed, for it is easy to get in too much. 

Raw linseed oil is required with which to mix the lead and thin it to 
the proper consistency, and also sometimes to thin the prepared paints. 
Turpentine is also used for thinning, but detracts from the durability if 
used lavishly. It is not customary to use it for outside work, unless to thin 
the first coat. It is commonly used for inside painting and causes the 
paint to work more freely and smoothly from the brush and to dry more 
quickly. It gives the dull, soft, or "dead" appearance often desired in 
inside work. 

It is usual to add a "dryer," as Japan, to paint to hasten the drying. 
Use very little dryer, as much of it is injurious to the durability of the paint. 
Add it just before the paint is to be used and only to the quantity to be 
used at the time. Zinc paints are usually considered inferior. Red lead 
is commonly used to paint iron and is very durable for that purpose. Black 
Japan varnish and asphaltum are often used. Iron must be dry, and it is 
better to have it warm. 

' This seems to be a common opinion among experienced men. There are, however, 
many painters of experience who prefer the prepared liquid paint. 



Operations in Shaping, Fitting, and Finishing 199 

When leaving paint, pour a thin layer of linseed oil over the top to 
exclude the air and keep the paint from hardening. If to be used again soon, 
it will do to leave the brush in the paint, but not standing or resting on the 
bottom of the can, as that tends to bend the ends of the bristles. Fasten a 
wire hook on the handle and hang the brush so that the bristles will be covered 
by the paint, but will not touch the bottom. If the brush is not to be used 
again for some time it should be cleaned with kerosene or turpentine and 
put away. Wash out all the paint, as a little left between the bristles 
will sometimes stick them together so as to ruin the brush. Brushes which 
are in use can be hung from the handles in a can partially filled with oil, 
or even water, the can being kept covered. 

The first coat especially should be given plenty of time to dry, 
for the durability of the painting depends much upon it, and each 
succeeding coat should also be dry and hard before applying another, 
for excluding the air from an under layer causes i-t to dry much more 
slowly than if left exposed. Thus the outside surface may seem to 
be dry and hard while the paint underneath remains comparatively 
soft. 

Warm canvas before painting it and where it is laid on wood as for as 
floor, roof, or deck, lay it in a heavy coating of white lead. Paint dries 
more quickly in a warm and dry atmosphere than where it is cold and damp. 

Sandpaper nice inside work after the first coat and between successive 
coats. Pumice can be used for old inside work to be repainted. Steel 
wool can be used to clean off old paint. Keep a rag with you when painting, 
to wipe off any spattering, for it is not easy to remove paint after it is hard. 
Use kerosene to take fresh paint from the hands, as it is better for the hands 
than turpentine. 

Brushes. — It is essential to have a brush for cleaning off work 
before finishing. A sash brush is good. Small flat bristle brushes 
are usually better than large round ones for shellac, varnish, and 
paint, except for very coarse work. From one to two inches wide 
is usually large enough, although for a large surface a large brush 
does better work and saves time. For small or narrow surfaces, the 



200 A Shorter Course in Woodworking 

brushes used for "drawing" sashes are good, and for drawing Hnes 
use "pencil" brushes. 

Rinse brushes carefully after using, — shellac brushes in alcohol (nothing 
else will cut shellac), varnish brushes in turpentine, and paint brushes in 
ttirpentine or kerosene. The alcohol used for rinsing can be saved and 
used to thin shellac. If paint or varnish brushes are not to be used again 
soon they should be thoroughly washed in strong soapsuds and carefully 
smoothed into shape before laying away. Before using, they can be rinsed 
clean. Vessels can be bought with covers arranged to protect both the 
varnish and the brush. 

Putty. — Common putty is a mixture of linseed oil and whiting of about 
the consistency of dough. White lead worked in with the whiting makes 
it far superior. To color putty, stir the coloring matter in a little oil 
and then work and knead it into the putty until the whole is colored. 
Keep putty under water or in a tight vessel, not in paper. If too soft 
wrap in paper and the surplus oil will soon be absorbed. Use a square- 
bladed puttyknife for flat surfaces. 

151. Glazing. — An old chisel is good to clean off old putty before 
setting glass in old frames. On new work, see that the rabbet or 
shoulder where the putty is to go is primed with lead paint before 
putting on the putty; and before setting the glass, spread a layer of 
putty on the rabbet for it to rest on. "Glazier's points" are best to 
hold the glass in place under the putty. 

Common glass in furniture, as in bookcase doors, can be fastened 
in place with small strips, not pressed too tightly against it. Strips 
of plain moulding are good. See also page 253. 



APPENDIX 



WOOD 



The rings, or circular lines, on the end of a piece of wood (Fig. 523) are 
called the annual rings, ^ and each marks a new layer of wood added to the 
tree, for the trees used for woodworking grow by adding layers of wood on 
the outside. Notice that the wood nearest the bark, known as the sap- 
wood, usually looks different from the inner wood, called the heart (Fig. 
523.) In some trees there are rays, radiating from the centre, and known 
as the medullary rays (Figs. 523 and 524), because 
they spring from the pith (Latin, medulla). Some- 
times these rays are not noticeable. The layers of 
wood forming the annual rings also appear in 
what is called the "grain" on the surface of a 

piece of wood cut 

lengthways (Fig. 524 ). 

At the ends of timber, 

too, after seasoning 

has begun, cracks can 

be seen radiating from 

the centre , showing 

the natural lines of 

cleavage or separation. 
Green wood contains 

much water, the 

quantity depending 
upon the kind of tree, the season of the year, etc. The more water a green 
log contains, the more it will shrink in drying. The sapwood shrinks more 
than the heart because it contains more water; and shrinks faster because, 

' In the common trees of temperate climes one layer is added each year. 

201 





Fig. 523 



Fig. 524 



202 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 




Fig. 525 



being on the outside, it is more exposed. The log shrinks most in the line of 
the annual rings, that is, around the tree. It shrinks much less in the line 
of the medullary rays, that is, across the tree. Shrinkage lengthways is 
too slight to be considered' (Fig. 525). The result of this unequal shrinking 

is that the log tends to crack 
open, at the circumference (Fig. 
526), the cracks running in 
toward the centre, in the line of 
the medullary rays. 

Thus the way the log is sawed 
is important. If it be halved or 
quartered, so that the inner 
parts are exposed, the drying 
goes on more uniformly, the 
cracking is not so bad, and the 
parts of the log will shrink 
somewhat as shown in Figs. 527 
and 528. 

The beams, joists, and planks, 
or boards cut from a log have 
the same tendency to shrink un- 
evenly that is found in the log 
itself. This causes them to be 
irregular in shape and to curl or 
warp more or less, according to 
the part of the log from which 
they are taken. Thus a piece 
cut from the centre of a log 
holds its shape better than a 
piece cut from one side (Fig. 529), 
When a log is sawed into boards or planks (Fig. 530) the middle board 
shrinks but little in width and in thickness at the centre, but becomes 
thinner toward the edges. It does not curl, because it is cut through the 
centre of the log and has no more tendency to curl one way than the other. 

I Although the shrinkage lengthways is not usually noticeable, it shows slightly when 
pieces become sprung or bowed lengthways, as can be seen in boards which have been left 
free to bend while seasoning. 




Fig. 526 



Appendix 



203 



The outside board shrinks least in thickness and most in width, and all, 
except the middle one, shrink differently on one side from the other. They 

become convex toward the pith, 
or heart, and concave toward 
the outside. Different kinds of 
wood shrink and warp to dif- 
ferent degrees. Examine the 
stock in a lumber-yard. 





Fig. 527 

To get the most from a log in 
the form of boards or plank, it is 
sawed in the simple way just 
shown (Fig. 531). This is the 
usual way for ordinary purposes. Fig. 528 

The central boards will be good 

and the outer ones inferior,' as just shown (Fig. 530), but for common 
work all can generally be used. The highly figured grain ^ often seen in 





Fig. 529 



Fig. 530 



1 In addition to the curling, the outer boards will be poorer because they contain a 
greater proportion of sapwood, which is usually inferior to the heartwood. 

2 By this is not meant the figures or flashes shown by the medullary rays, or "silver 



204 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 



oak, ash, chestnut, etc., results from sawing the log in this way (Fig. 531), 
and is most marked in the outer boards (Fig. 532), because the annual rings 
are cut more obliquely than in those at or near the centre. 





Fig. 531 



Fig. 532 



To get the beautiful figure formed when the medullary rays show on 
the surface of a board, as in quartered oak, the log should be cut in the 
direction of the radii, that is, along the lines of the medullary rays (Fig. 
533). The nearer a board is cut to the radial line the more richly the figure 





Fig. 533 



Fig. 534 



of the medullary rays will be shown, as in Fig. 534. This method of sawing 
costs more than the first method as it takes more labor and wastes more 
wood. The wide board shown in Fig. 534 and either of those in Fig. 535 
are examples. 

To obtain boards that will shrink the least in width and remain as true 
as possible, the log should be sawed on the radial lines as just shown. 

grain" seen in quartered oak and some other woods, but the figure of the grain without 
the medullary rays, as seen in plain oak, etc. 



Appendix 



205 



Wood shrinks but little in the direction of the radii, as just shown, and 
boards thus sawed will be alike on both sides as regards heart wood, sap- 
wood, etc., and, therefore, have the least tendency to change of shape.' 
Various methods of radial sawing, or in 
which part of the boards are so cut, 
are shown in Figs. 533 and 539, Figs. 536, 
537. 538, and 539 showing the log quar- 
tered and different ways of sawing into 
boards. 

Split or rift stock is stronger than 
sawed. To be especially tough and p. 

durable, as for an axe handle or a stout 
pin, the wood should be split out, unless it is very straight-grained, because 







Fig. 536 



Fig. 537 



Fig. 538 



the splitting is sure to be in the Hne of the fibres, thus avoiding "cross- 
grain." 

Well-seasoned wood is necessary for nice 
work, to prevent cracks, warping, opened joints, 
and often the entire ruin of the article. It is 
not easy for the beginner to decide whether 
stock is properly seasoned, except in case of 
very green wood, which is of course wet and 
soggy. Much stock sold as dry is not thor- 
oughly seasoned and care should be taken in 
buying. Two ways of drying wood are com- 
mon. One is the old-fashioned method (usual- 
Fig. 539 ly known as seasoning, or air-drying) in which 

' Although boards cut through or near the middle are, as a rule, the best, when they 
contain the pith they are sometimes valueless in the centre, as when, in the case of an old 
tree, decay has begun at that point. 




2o6 A Shorter Course in Woodworking 

the wood is gradually seasoned by exposure to the air (but protected from 
the weather). ' The second way is that ordinarily used. To save time and 
money, the wood is dried in a closed room by steam or other heat (called 
kiln-drying) much more quickly than by the old way. 

By the natural air-drying process the moisture slowly works out to 
the surface and evaporates, until the wood is seasoned, though never 
absolutely dry, and the stock is firmer, more elastic, and less affected by 
heat and cold, moisture and dryness, than if kiln-dried. The latter process 
tends to dry the outside and ends of the lumber too fast for the inside. 
It certainly lessens the elasticity of the wood and weakens its strength. 
Unless it is at once protected from dampness in some way, it will reabsorb 
moisture until it gets into a more natural condition^; but that will not fully 
restore its elasticity. 

Hard woods ^ should first be air-dried for some months at least, before 
being put into a kiln. The kiln-drying "takes the life out of the wood." 
Lumber left for years to season naturally "stands" better than if kiln- 
dried. The gain by kiln-drying, in time and money, is, therefore, offset 
by impairment of the quality of the wood. Kiln-dried stock is, however, 
in most cases the only sufficiently seasoned kind available. Get it from 
a slow-drying kiln if possible. 

There are various other methods of seasoning. Wood is sometimes 
soaked in water before being seasoned. This helps remove the soluble 

' The time it takes to season depends on the kind of wood, its shape and size, the con- 
dition of the atmosphere, and various circumstances. Oak, for example, takes longer 
than pine. For some rough work there is no advantage in seasoning at all. For much 
common work one or two years is enough for some kinds and sizes of wood ; for a nicer grade 
of work two or three years is none too much, while for very nice indoor work even more time 
will be beneficial. There is little danger of its being kept too long. It never will get 
perfectly dry, as there will always be from ten to twenty per cent, of moisture left, according 
to the temperature and the humidity of the atmosphere. Whether it is dry enough de- 
pends on what it is to be used for. 

* Recent investigation shows that the very fibre or substance of the wood itself imbibes, 
and holds water tenaciously, in addition to that popularly understood to be contained in the 
pores of the wood. 

3 The kinds of wood commonly used are known as either hard or soft, the former from 
trees with broad leaves, as the oak, the latter from coniferous or needle-leaved trees, as the 
white-pine. This distinction is somewhat puzzling in some cases, for the common white- 
wood of the hardwood class is softer and easier to work than hard pine of the softwood class, 
but the distinction is based on botanical reasons. 



Appendix 



207 



elements of the sap, but it is doubtful whether the process improves the 
quality of the wood. Smoking and steaming are also resorted to. Small 
pieces can readily be smoked, which hardens the wood and adds to its 
durability. Care must be taken not to burn, scorch, or crack the wood. 

Even if wood has been well seasoned it is best, before putting it into 
nice work, to cut it approximately to shape, and leave it in a dry place for 
some time for a final seasoning, particularly in the case of thick stock. 
Do this with kiln-dried stock fresh from the dry-house. Let it have time 
to get into harmony with the atmosphere. Strips cut from wide stock 
should for nice work be got out in advance and larger than required, to 
allow for springing and change of shape. Whenever wood has been exposed 
to damp air, as in a wet shed or cellar, let it stand in the warm shop a while 
before using it for nice work. 

For seasoning, the stock is piled to allow the air to circulate around 
and between the pieces. A common way is to pile as in Fig. 540. The 




Fig. 540 

sticks between the layers should be placed directly over one another, so that 
the lumber will lie straight, else the weight of the pile will make the 
boards crooked. If exposed to sun and weather pile with the heart side 
up. Stock is sometimes stacked upright, and small pieces are occasionally 
hung up, for such nice work as billiard cues and bows. 

Seasoned wood is lighter in weight than green, dryer to the touch, usually 
has a different odor, cuts differently when you whittle it (the piece you 
whittle off breaks differently), and it shows a difference when you saw it. 
These differences cannot be accurately described and must be learned by 
actual work. It is not always easy even for an experienced person to 
determine the degree of seasoning in some cases. One test is to rap the 



2o8 A Shorter Course in Woodworking 

boards sharply with a hammer. A green board and a dry one of the same 
kind will have a different vibration and give out a different sound. Much 
can be learned about the character and condition of lumber by sawing 
or planing or whittling a piece. This is a good test for dryness, toughness, 
and elasticity (which you can tell about by breaking the shavings) . ' 

Weather-dried timber is usually somewhat darkened from exposure, 
whereas kiln-drying lightens the color of some woods. Stock with a bright 
lustrous appearance and of dark hue is generally superior to that of a 
lighter color and duller appearance, but such characteristics depend much 
upon the kind of wood. Green wood is tougher than seasoned, but the 
latter is more elastic Applying moisture with heat to seasoned wood 
brings it back, to a certain extent, to its original condition, and makes it 
tougher for the time being, hence the process of bending wood by the appli- 
cation of steam or hot water. 

Boards and planks are not always sawed to a uniform thickness, and 
rough stock should be examined for this defect before buying. For plain 
work avoid "cross-grained" stock; and for nice work avoid that which has 
knots, since it is harder to work and to smooth, is not so strong, and does 
not hold its shape so well. Sometimes cross-grained stock is desirable, 
however, on account of the beautiful figure of the grain, as in mahogany 
for furniture. Reject wood which smells musty, or has rusty-looking 
spots, which are signs of decay, or of the attack of fungi, which may spread. 

Reject crooked stock. The worst form is winding or twisting. (See 
page 1 8.) Even a slight winding may make much trouble in nice work. 
Look particularly for this defect. Warped or curled stock with the surface 
rounded or hollowed is also bad. This defect can be detected by the eye 
or a straight stick. Stock is sometimes sprung or bent lengthways, or 
wavy (Fig. 541), or both, often due to careless "sticking." 

Use caution about stock badly checked or cracked at the ends, where the 

^ There is a distinction between the elasticity needed for such purposes as a bow or spring- 
board, and the toughness required for the ribs of a canoe, or the wattles of a basket. In 
the former case the material must not merely bend without breaking, but must spring 
back (or nearly so) to its former shape when released, as with lancewood or white ash; 
while in the latter case it must bend without breaking but is not required to spring back 
to its original form, as with many green sticks which can be easily bent but have not much 
elasticity. These two qualities are found combined in varying degrees in all woods. 
Elastic wood must necessarily have toughness up to the breaking point, but tough wood 
may have but little elasticity. 



Appendix 209 

drying takes place most rapidly. The ends of valuable boards and planks 
are sometimes painted or cleated, which in a measure prevents this result. 
Occasionally, when a cleat is removed a crack will suddenly open and even 
split the board. Freshly cut 
ends in dry stock are sometimes 
sized with glue to prevent check- 
ing. In some kinds of wood it Fig_ ^41 
is impossible to tell before the 

stock is cut where cracks and splits end. In mahogany, for example, 
they sometimes are found to extend, or develop, several feet beyond 
where they appear to stop. Avoid sap wood, because it is usually inferior. 
In the case of elm, hickory, and young ash the sapwood is, however, some- 
times considered superior to the heartwood. ' 

When buying, select the stock yourself. It is better to do this for 
nice work even if an extra charge be made. The annual rings at the ends 
of the boards, the sapwood (when visible), the grain, etc., will show from 
what part of the log the pieces were sawed. 

Do not buy thick stock with the idea of sawing it into thinner pieces 
(unless necessary), for you cannot be sure that these will be so true as the 
original stock. Suddenly exposing the middle of a piece of wood to the 
air often entirely alters the shape. If you want to use boards for good 
work buy those which have seasoned as boards, instead of splitting up 
thicker lumber; and always try to treat both sides of a board alike. If 
you have an inch board planed down by machine to three eighths of an 
inch, for instance, have it planed equally, as nearly as may be, from both 
sides. It is common to simply smooth off, or "surface" one side, and then 
plane the board down on the other side, often making it warp badly at 
once. 

Carefully pile and "stick" the stock on hand (Fig. 540), as it will tend 

'As a rule, wood from a young tree is tougher than that from an old one; the best, 
hardest, and strongest in the young tree usually being nearest the heart, while in an old tree 
the heart having begun to deteriorate is softer and not so good as the more recently formed 
growths nearer the sapwood. If the tree is in its prime the wood is more uniformly hard 
throughout. The sapwood, as a rule, is tougher than the heartwood, though usually inferior 
in other respects; and timber light in weight is sometimes tougher than heavy wood, though 
the latter is often stronger and more durable and preferable for many purposes. The 
growth and structure of trees is a very complex matter, however, and the diversities 
almost infinite. 



210 



A Shorter Cause in Woodworking 



to keep the pieces straight and true. Never lay good boards down flat 
directly upon one another unless they are thoroughly seasoned. The latter 
is the best of all ways, however, to keep a pile of stock once thoroughly 
seasoned. The top board will warp. Do not lay a single board of nice 
stock flat on its side on the bench or floor. Keep short pieces, which it is 
not worth while to "stick," standing on end where they will be equally 
exposed on all sides to heat and cold, moisture and dryness. 

Stock for nice work must be kept and used in a dry place, or when the 
work is removed later to a dry place it will shrink or warp, and perhaps 
be ruined. 

152. Decay and Preservation. — Tim- 
ber decays fastest when alternately wet 
and dry, as in the piles of a wharf, fence- 
posts, and the like, or when exposed to a 
hot, moist, close atmosphere, as the sills 
and floor-timbers over some damp and un- 
ventilated cellar. Fig. 542 shows the decay 
caused by alternate wetness and dryness, 
while the parts above and below are still 
sound. Wood lasts the best when kept dry 
and well ventilated. When kept constantly 
wet it is somewhat softened, and will not 
resist so much, but does not decay. Thor- 
ough seasoning, protection from the sun and 
rain, and free circulation of air are the es- 
sentials to the preservation of timber. ^ 

^ The conditions best for the preservation of the wood, as referred to above, are also 
the least favorable for the attacks of animal life and of fungi. As soon as the tree has been 
felled and dies, decomposition begins, as in all organic bodies, and sooner or later will 
totally destroy the wood. The woody fibre itself will last for ages, but some of the sub- 
stances involved in the growth soon decay. The sap is liable to ferment, shown by a bluish 
tint, and decay sets in. Fungi may fasten upon the wood. Worms and insects may also 
attack it, preferring that which is richest in sap. Decay originates chiefly in the decom- 
position of the sap (although in living trees past their prime decay begins in the heartwood 
while the sapwood is sound), so the more the sap can be got rid of the better. There are, 
however, some substances found in various trees, aside from those elements especially 
required for their growth, which render the wood more durable, such as tannic acid, which 
abounds in oak and a number of trees, particularly in the bark, and the turpentine and 
other volatile oils and resinous deposits found in needle-leaved trees. 




Fig- 542 



Appendix 



211 





Many preparations and chemical processes have been tried for the 
preservation of wood. Creosote is one of the best preservatives known. 
Insects and fungi are repelled by its odor. The so-called "creosote 
stains" are excellent for outside work, not very expensive, and easily 
applied. Coal-tar and wood-tar or pitch, applied hot in thin coats, are 
also good and cheap preservatives. Charring the ends of fence-posts by 
holding them for a short time over a fire is a common method. Various 
expensive processes for preserving wood are in use where large quantities 
are required. Painting with oil paint is of course the most common way of 
protecting wood, but in using any coating, as paint or tar, which interferes 
with the process of evaporation, the wood should be thoroughly dry when 
it is applied, or the coating will confine the moisture and favor decay. 

Wet rot is a decay of the unsea- 
soned wood, which may also be 
caused in seasoned wood by moisture 
with a temperate degree of warmth. 
It occurs in wood alternately exposed 
to dryness and moisture. Dry rot, 
which is due to fungi, does not attack 
dry wood, but is found where there 
is dampness and lack of free circulation of air, as in warm, damp, and un- 
ventilated situations, like cellars and the more confined parts of ships, 
and in time results in the entire crumbling away of the wood. Creosote 
is preventive to the extent to which it saturates the wood. 

153. Shakes are cracks radiating from the centre of the tree, or else 
between the annual rings so as to separate the layers, and are due to uneven 
shrinkage, swaying in the wind, decay, or other causes. Fig. 543 shows the 
common forms. 

154. Effects of Expansion and Contraction. — Besides guarding against 
damage from the shrinking of green wood, the swelling and shrinking of 
dry wood has to be borne in mind for many kinds of work. 

When taken from the kiln it absorbs moisture from the air, and swells. 
When the air becomes more damp, the wood swells more. When the air 
becomes dryer, it draws moisture from the wood, and the latter becomes 
dryer and shrinks. This continual swelling and shrinking cannot be pre- 
vented, and the work must be put together to allow for it. ' 

' For instance, if you were to glue cleats for their whole length across the side of a 



HEART- 


STAR- 


CUP- 


SHAKES 


SHAKES 

Fig. 543 


SHAKES 



212 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 




Fig. 544 





Cracks, curling, warping, winding, or twisting of wood are due to 
irregular and uneven swelling and shrinking. Some kinds of wood shrink 
much in drying, others but little. Some, after seasoning, swell and shrink, 
curl and warp, to a marked degree with the changes of the atmosphere. 
Stock once thoroughly air-dried, however, alters less under ordinary cir- 
cumstances. If one part shrinks much faster 
than another, cracks result. Put one end of a 
green board into a hot oven. The heated end 
will crack and split before the rest of the board 
has fairly begun to dry. Exposure 
of one side of a seasoned piece to 
either dampness or heat will cause it 
to curl, for the dampness swells the 
side affected or the heat shrinks it. 
In cutting wood into smaller pieces, 
unexpected bending and twisting 
will often develop in the smaller pieces 
which did not exist in the original 
stock, due to suddenly exposing the 
fresh cuts to the atmosphere. 
Frequently the heart of a tree is not in the centre. In some cases it 
takes such a devious course as to make the grain so crooked that the ten- 
dency to warp or twist cannot be prevented by any method of sawing. 
Figs. 544, 545 illustrate this in an exaggerated way. Such trees may show 
beautiful variations of grain. Even in straight trees the pith is seldom 
quite straight, due to the crooked way the tree grew when young (Fig. 546). 
In addition, the knots caused by branches, the twisting of the stems, 
screw-fashion (as seen in cedar), wounds, and other causes, often produce 
very crooked and tangled grain, and the wood of many broad-leaved trees 
is sometimes extremely complicated in texture. In some kinds of mahog- 
any, for instance, the fibres are strangely interlaced and run in different 
directions in layers which are quite near each other. 

Warping, twisting, and cracking are obviated in many cases where objec- 

drawing-board three feet wide, it would probably not be many weeks before the cleats 
would be loosened for at least part of their length, because of the expansion or contraction 
of the board. In such cases the cleats should be fastened with screws which have play 
enough to allow for shrinking and swelling. As another example see Fig. 638. 



Fig- 545 



Fig. 546 



Appendix 



213 



tionable (as in the wooden frames of machines, the tops of benches, etc.) 
by building up with a number of smaller pieces. These should be selected 
and put together so that, though the grain will run in the same direction 
lengthways, the annual rings at the ends will not run together as in a 
natural piece, but will be reversed or arranged in various combinations, so 
that the warping and twisting tendencies of the different parts will counter- 
act each other. Thus instead of a single board which would naturally 
become warped in one large curve, a number of strips can be glued up 
(Fig. 140), so that the warping will merely result in a slightly wavy line. 
Where but one side of a board is seen or used, and where the full strength 
is not needed, warping and twisting can sometimes be largely prevented 
by lengthways saw-cuts (easily made with the circular saw) on the back 
or under surface, as in a drawing-board, the crossways strength required 
being secured by cleating or other devices. Doors and most forms of 
panelled work also illustrate various methods of preventing damage from 
swelling and shrinking (see page 167). 

A FEW ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTION 

155. Importance of Diagonal Members. Strength of Materials. — Nail 
three strips of wood together to form a triangle (Fig. 547). Nail also four 
strips to form a square. Whereas a little pushing or pulling will change the 
shape of the rectangle, you will find that you cannot alter the shape of the 
triangle without applying force enough to break it. Now, nail a diagonal 
strip to the rectangle (Fig. 548), making it into two triangles, and you 
cannot change the shape without breaking it. 




Fig. 547 




Fig. 548 



This very simple principle has innumerable applications in all kinds of 
constructive work. Where there is no strain upon a structure to alter its 
shape, diagonal strengthening is not necessary, but in many cases it 



214 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 



is essential, for a lightly built structure properly planned is often much 
stronger than a heavily built one of poor design. 

For example, a driveway gate, made as in Fig. 549, soon begins to get 
out of shape, as in Fig. 550. If it have a diagonal member it cannot do 
this, except by the giving way of some part. At first the diagonal distances 
AD and BC were equal. After the gate has settled out of shape the dis- 



plOJLiULJL, c 
I? 



sU U U U U U o 



^ r a ' ' i l— U — U — U — 11 



Fig. 549 



Fig. 550 



tance A D will be longer and B C shorter than before, as A and D have 
been pushed farther apart and B and C drawn nearer together. Now 
an iron rod is good for a pulling strain (tension) , " but not for a pushing 
strain (compression), so if we put a diagonal rod from A to D it will tie the 

' A piece of wood or metal may be strained or destroyed in several ways: by being 
stretched or pulled apart, — tension; it may be crushed or pushed together, — compression; 
it may be broken across, — tranverse- or cross-strain; or it may be twisted apart by torsion. 
It rr^ay be broken or injured by any or several of these strains. 

The strength of a piece of wood or metal to resist crushing, tension, or shearing is in 
proportion to the area of its section. A piece with a section two square inches in area is 
twice as strong as one with a section one square inch in area. The strength to resist a 
transverse or cross-strain is as the width, inversely as the length, and as the square of the 
depth. Doubling the width doubles the strength. Doubling the length divides the 
strength by two. Doubling the depth multiplies the strength by four. That is, a beam 
four inches wide is twice as strong as one two inches wide. A beam ten feet long is twice 
as strong as one twenty feet long. A beam eight inches deep is four times as strong as 
one four inches deep. 

In making splices and other joints where strength is required, it should be borne in 
mind that the strength of any structure is limited by the strength of its weakest part, 
therefore the aim should be to make a joint or splice as nearly equal in strength to the parts 
it connects as possible. The joint best for one strain is usually not the best for another, 
therefore the fewer different strains a joint is subjected to the better. A plain butt joint 
fastened to prevent movement sideways is sufficient for compression, but often requires 
strengthening for cross-strain also. Joints to be subjected to tension require careful 
planning to preserve so far as possible the full strength. 



Appendix 



21 



points A and D together, and the gate will hold its shape (Fig. 551), except 
for the slight sagging which is inevitable in such work. Or, if we wish to 
put a diagonal member from B to C, it will be under a pushing strain (com- 
pression), since the points B and C will tend to come nearer together, and 
we should not use a rod, but a wooden brace or strut, which will stand the 
pushing and will not easily bend (Fig. 552). 



l„n n n n n 



f 

1 



i^ 



m 



^a 



u u u u u 




^ ^ ^ ^ ^^ 



J^m 



race 



Fig- 551 



u u u u u u 



Fig. 552 



Lay a twig across two supports, hang a weight at the middle and see 
what happens (Fig. 553). The bark will pucker on the upper side of the 
twig, showing that the top is being shortened or compressed. The bark 
will be stretched and perhaps cracked apart on the under side, showing 
that the lower part is being lengthened or pulled out (or subjected to tension)^ 
Now, if you lay a piece of timber 2" x 8" across a brook for a bridge, or as a 

m — ^Compression « w 

B 





Fig. 553 



Fig. 554 



floor-timber, it will suffer the same kind of strain as the twig, shortening 
(compression) in the top part and pulling out (tension) in the lower part. 
This principle applies to the trusses of a bridge or a roof, although these 
are made up of many pieces instead of one piece. The upper part is under 
compression, the lower under tension. If you were told in time of war to 
destroy a wooden railroad bridge, all you would have to do would be to 
saw through the lower chords, as they are called (A in Fig. 554), and the 



2l6 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 




bridge would fall, for the lower part would be under the strain of tension 

and trying to pull apart all the time. If you were to saw the upper chord 

(B in Fig. 554), instead, the bridge would still stand, for the top would be 

under compression and the saw-kerf would immediately close up 

I like any butt joint that is being pushed together. In fact the 
pressure would bind the saw unless the kerf were forced open. 
The bridge would not be so strong, since an unsecured butt-joint 
Fig. 555 might work out of place, but it would not fall of itself. 

In order that the material may resist the compression and 
tension to the best advantage it is placed with reference to these strains, 
as, for example, in a common I-beam of iron (Fig. 555), in which a good 
deal of the metal is purposely arranged at the top and bottom. Bridge 
trusses illustrate this also. A beam will bear 
twice as much weight equally distributed 
over its length as when applied at the 
centre. 

The simplest way to bridge over a short 
distance is to lay a beam on edge. For a 
wider distance the beam (or girder) can be pjg ^55 

supported by braces as in Fig. 556. The 

weight on the beam, bearing downward, will push or thrust on them, and 
they will be under compression, one half the thrust being put upon each 

brace which in turn pushes against the 
abutment, or the braces can be put on top, 
and the middle of the beam hung from their 
apex (Fig. 557). When the beam begins 
to bend with the weight applied, it pulls 
on the rod at the middle. This rod, hang- 
ing from the apex, pushes the braces, and 
Fig. 557 the braces, being fastened to the beam, 

in turn put the beam under tension. As another illustration, it is com- 
mon to strengthen or stiffen a beam as in Fig. 558. The weight at W 
bending the beam, pushes the strut or block A, and this pulls on the rod, 
which applies compression to the beam. These crude illustrations give the 
clue to the general principles which, often carried much farther, apply to 
the construction of many comparatively simple pieces of work, as well as 
roofs, bridges, and the like. 




Appendix 



217 



3^" X 12' 



Have a few hundred little strips of soft pine perhaps >^" x 
prepared. Very little force will break one of these pieces. Nail them 
together to form a simple lattice bridge as shown in Fig. 559, making it 
perhaps 6' or 8' long and each side or truss several strips in thickness. 



Compfession 





Fig- 558 



Fig- 559 



Though a very slight-looking affair, it will support an enormous weight. 
Bridges of this kind made by pupils of the writer have supported the 
weight of entire classes (several thousand pounds), and long levers have 
sometimes been necessary to break them. Such experiments show the 
strength derived from combination, and also that the strength of a model 
is much greater proportionately than a larger structure. 

SOME PRACTICAL PROBLEMS IN DRAWING AND LAYING 

OUT WORK 

While a photograph or picture shows how an object looks, we cannot 
take accurate dimensions from it with a rule. To do so we must have 
drawings which show at once the exact shapes, sizes, and positions of the 
various parts. 

The view of what you would see if you stood directly in front of an 
object is called the front elevation. Stand opposite either side or end and 
you have the side or end elevation. In the same manner the rear elevation 
is shown. Next, imagine yourself directly above the object. This view 
is called the plan. ^ If the sides or ends are not alike, as is sometimes the 
case, two side or end views may be needed. 

' This definition of elevations and plan as being representations of what you would see 
if you stood opposite the sides or above the top of the object, is merely a rough explanation 
of the meaning of the terms. The elevation is, strictly speaking, not the way the front 
or side would appear if looked at from one position, but the way it would appear if you 
could look at it from directly opposite every point of it — as if you could have an infinite 
number of eyes, one opposite every point of the object. 



2i8 A Shorter Course in Woodworking 

All important work should be made from working drawings, which 
should show not only exactly what is to be made but exactly how to make 
it. Every detail and measurement should be accurately drawn to scale. 
This requires that the work be thought out to the end and thoroughly 
understood, rough preparatory sketches being made first when necessary.' 

Elevations are taken at right angles to the plan. If the object is quite 
simple, one elevation and the plan, or two elevations without the plan, 
may be sufficient. Make drawings full-sized when the object is not too 
large. Mistakes are less likely to be made, and it gives a better idea of 
how the object is to look. In making a drawing which is symmetrical, 
it is a safeguard to lay it out from a centre line, and labor and space are 
usually saved by drawing on one side of the centre line only. 

If each line of a drawing is one half the length of the same line in the 
real object, it is called a "half-size" drawing, and is said to be drawn on a 
scale of 6" to the foot. If "one-fourth size," the scale is 3" to the foot. 
The scale is often expressed as an equation, viz.: 2 in. = i ft., or 3^" =1'. 
If the drawing is not made with accuracy, it is necessary to put the 
dimensions upon it. This is often done for convenience with drawings 
which are accurate. 

Details inside of an object, — that is, such parts as cannot be seen or 
properly shown in the elevations or plan, — are often shown by dotted lines, 
as in Fig. 662. Sometimes dotted lines are used in the same way to show 
the back of an object, to save making extra drawings. Yet since too many 
dotted lines are confusing, it is frequently best to make another kind of 
drawing to show such details. This is called a "section" (Lat., sectio, 
from secare, to cut), and shows what would be seen if the object were cut 
apart. The surface supposed to be cut is usually indicated by parallel 
lines crossing it. Independent parts, as those of different pieces, are 
frequently shown by changing the direction of the parallel lines, as in 

' It is the custom in all practical work for which drawings are used, first to design the 
object, expressing the design with the details in working drawings, — in fact, if drawings 
are required at all they must obviously be made before the object is begun. That this 
is the necessary and logical mode of procedure in professional work does not necessarily 
prove it to be always the logical or sensible way for the beginner. The drawing must 
come before the work; but whether it should be made by the pupil, or be provided for him, 
should depend upon his knowledge of the construction of the object he is to make. To 
make working drawings properly, one must understand the construction of the object to 
be made. 



Appendix 219 

Fig. 479. A half-elevation and half-section can sometimes be combined in 
one drawing. 

It is often a help to have a picture of the object to be made as well as a 
working drawing, in forming a correct idea of something you may never 
have seen. Where the appearance of the object is of consequence, as in 
the case of a house or bookcase, the picture is important. An idea in the 
mind is not always sufficient from which to make working drawings, al- 
though the first step in the process. When the idea is put into the form 
of a picture, it often does not look as you thought it would, and if you had 
started at once on the working drawings the result would have been unsat- 
isfactory and sometimes impracticable. Even after making a satisfactory 
sketch or picture the completed object often looks quite different from what 
was expected. 

Oblique or parallel projections are often used, from which measurements 
can be made. Such projections are not true representations of the objects 
as they appear to the eye, but they are easily drawn and readily understood. 
(See page 221.) 

Another way of representing objects for practical purposes is shown in 
Figs. 571, 661, and is known as isometric^ projection or isometric perspec- 
tive. This method is incorrect so far as giving an accurate picture is 
concerned, but is often useful because by it all that is required can fre- 
quently be expressed in one drawing. Isometric perspective will not 
readily give the correct dimensions except in the lines which are vertical 
or which slant either way at an angle of 30° with the horizontal, — i.e., 
you cannot take the other dimensions off with a rule as 
from a plan. Therefore, so far as obtaining correct 
dimensions is concerned, it is practically not useful 
for other than rectangular objects; though 
even with objects having curved parts it may 
advantageously be used to show the general 
shape. (See page 221.) Fig. 560 Fig. 561 

156. Drawing Instruments. — The most im- 
portant for common pencil work are a drawing board, two triangles (Figs. 
560 and 561), T-square, lead pencil (rather hard), dividers (with pencil 
point), rule or scale, and thumb tacks. 

157. Use of the T-square. — Slide the head up or down, as may 

^ Greek, equal measure. 





220 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 



be required, against the left side of the drawing board only as 
in Fig. 578. 

158. Use of Triangles. — Slide them against the T-square and against 
one another. Celluloid triangles are very convenient. 

159. Pencils for common use can be sharpened with a 

round point; for careful drawing, with a fiat or wedge- 
shaped edge (Fig. 562).^ 

Many kinds of lines are often used by draughtsmen. Parts 

not seen are designated 

by dotted lines, and 

parts between which 

dimensions are given 

by ^10"-^. Fig. 564 
offers suggestions for practise in the use of T-square, pencil, knife, rule, 
and straight-edge. 





Fig. 562 



Fig- 563 







/ 




\" 








s> 




/ 




Fig. 564 

To make a working drawing of a simple block, a front view and top 
view are required. These are enough to give all 
the dimensions of the block in Fig. 565. Hinge 
three boards together as shown in Fig. 566. Place 
the block on the bottom board, mark around it 
and you have the top view or plan (Fig. 566). 
Place the block against the board at the back, mark 

around it, and you have the front view (Fig. 

566). Place the block against the board at 

the left (it could be at the right, of course), 
Fig- 565 mark around it, and you have the end view 




Fig. 566 



' To draw a line accurately through given points, in mechanical drawing, the ruler 
should not quite touch the points, but be pushed nearly up to them and equally distant 
from each (Fig. 563). This gives a view of both points so that the line can be drawn as 
accurately as possible through each. The pencil point can be slanted until it coincides 
with one of the given points. Then, keeping the same inclination, move the pencil along 
until it passes through the second point. This applies to a ruler with a thin edge, as a 
T-square, or triangle, and to fine work only. See page 17. 



Appendix 



221 



(Fig. 566). Turn the upright board down and you have these three 
views displayed on a flat surface (Fig. 567). 

In oblique perspective' (Fig. 568), the front of the object is drawn of the 



n: 



I I 



P 



tei- 



;□ 







Fig. 567 



Fig. 568 



Fig. 569 Fig. 570 



correct shape and size and then, from the angles, lines of the right length 
are drawn at the same angle. By connecting the ends of these lines the 
shape of the block is shown. Figs. 569 and 570, are examples. 

Fig. 571 illustrates isometric perspective, in which all the measurements 
are taken either vertically or at angles of 30° with the horizontal, as shown. 





Fig. 571 



Fig. 572 



An arc is measured by the number of degrees it includes, as the arc 
DB in Fig. 596. An angle is also measured by the number of degrees of 
the arc included between its sides, as the angle DOB in Fig. 596. 

16. Geometrical problems in common use in practical work: 

I. To bisect a straight line (Fig. 574). — Let AB be the given straight 



222 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 



line. From A and B as centres, with radius greater than half of AB, 
describe arcs cutting each other at C and D. Draw CD cutting AB at E. 
AB is then bisected at E. 

2. From a given point in a given straight line to erect a perpendicular 
(Fig. 575).— Let AB be the given straight line, and C the given point. 




y 



Whole circle 

360' 

Fig. 573 



F 



£ 



\ 
D 

Fig. 574 



B 



Fig. 575 



From C as centre, with any radius, describe arcs cutting the line at D and 
E. From these points with any radius greater than CD or CE, describe 
arcs cutting each other in F. FC will be the perpendicular required. 

3. To draw a perpendicular from a point at the end of "^ 

a line (Fig. 576). — Let AB be the given straight line, and 
B the given point. Take any point C above the line, and 
with the radius CB describe an arc DBE cutting AB at E. 
Draw ECD; then draw DB, which will be the required 
perpendicular. 



/' 



B 



4. To draw a perpendicular to a given straight line £'~~ 

from a point without the line (Fig. 577). — Let A be the Fig. 576 

given point and BC the given straight line. From 
the point A describe an arc cutting BC at D and E. From D and E as 
centres and with csvy radius describe arcs cutting each other at F. AF 
will be the perpendicular required. 

The methods given above are the most accurate, but for common work 
the T-square and triangles can be used. Draw a horizontal line with the 



Appendix 



223 



5 



E 



T-square, slide the T-square down a little, place a triangle at the desired 

point and draw the perpendicular (Fig. 578). The reason for lower- 
ing the T-square is that by so doing the per- 
pendicular can be more accurately drawn at 
the required point. Two triangles, without the 
T-square, can be used in a similar manner 
(Fig. 579). Any straight-edge can be used in 
place of the lower tri- 
angle shown in Fig. 
579. With the T- 
square in its normal 
use only vertical per- 
pendiculars can be 
erected with the tri- 
angles, but it can of 
course be used merely 
as a straight -edge. 
With triangles, or 

straight-edge and triangle, perpendiculars can be erected in any position 

(Fig. 580). 

On the mathematical principle that the square of the hypothenuse is 

equal to the squares of the other two sides, a right angle can always be 



F 



Fig. 577 



1 r- 



r — t 


o| 



^— _1 I. 



Fig. 578 






Fig. 580 



Fig. 581 



obtained by making a triangle of those proportions. Triangles with sides 
which are respectively three, four, and five feet, or multiples of those figures, 
are constantly being made of strips of wood by workmen to secure right 
angles in their work. Thus a triangular frame of narrow boards (Fig. 581) 
is used by masons and carpenters to square foundations and sills. 



Through a given point to draw a line parallel to a given line 



224 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 



(Fig. 582). — Let AB be the given line and C the given point. With C 
as a centre draw an arc to cut AB in D. With the same radius and D as a 
^ - centre, draw an arc to cut AB in F. With 

D as centre and CF as radius draw an arc 
to cut the first arc in E. Draw a line 
through C and E and it will oe parallel to 
AB. 



/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 


■ r- 

/ 


; 


/ 


-^ 


/d 



B 



Fig. 582 



This is the most accurate way, but for 
common work, where the lines are horizon- 
tal or vertical, move the T-square up or down (Fig. 583) or slide a tri- 
angle to the right or left against the T-square (Fig. 584). Slanting parallel 














-:* o||| 






±1 L.. 



r- 


1 



i 





o||I 






— 1 









Fig- 583 



Fig. 584 



Fig. 585 



lines can be drawn with the slanting edge of a triangle or, with two 
triangles, parallel lines can be drawn in any direction (Fig. 585). Any 
straight-edge can be used in place of the lower triangle in Fig. 585. 



£ 

A 

/n\\\ 
// ' \ \ 
/ / ' \ \ 



I \ 






'./ 



\ 

\ \ 
\ \ 



s 



6. To divide a given line into any number of 
equal parts (Fig. 586). — Let AB be the given line. 
Draw CD parallel to AB at any convenient dis- 
tance from it. On CD lay off any distance as 
many times as the required number of equal 
parts. This maybe 

/4-^-^^ 7^^ — ^ — ^= — -B 



done by 
with a 



or 
measure . 



dividers 

y VV J. U XJ. C* Xil C 3; S 11 X \^ • 

'2 'J ^4 '^^ Through C and A and 
Fig. 586 through B and D 




Fig. 587 



draw lines meeting 
in E. From the points i, 2, 3, and 4 draw lines to E cutting AB in the 
points a, b, c, and d, which will divide AB into five equal parts. Or (Fig. 
587) : from one end of the line AB draw the indefinite line AC. From the 



Appendix 



225 



point A lay off any convenient equal distances AD, DE, EF, FG, and GH. 
Draw HB, and from G, F, E, and D draw GL, FK, EJ, and DI parallel to 
HB. Then AB will be divided into equal parts at I, J, K, and L. 

For ordinary small work these parallel lines can be quickly drawn by 
sliding a triangle against a straight-edge (Fig. 585). 

7. To bisect a given angle (Fig. 588). — Let 
ABC be the given angle. From B describe 

an arc DE cutting 
AB and BC at D 
and E. From D 
and E, with any 
equal radii, describe 
arcs intersecting in 
F. Draw BF and it 
will bisect the angle 
ABC. That is, the 
angle ABC is divid- 
ed into two equal an- 
gles ABF and FBC. 





Fig. 589 




To bisect an angle with 
From the point C lay off 
points A and B equally dis- 
tant from C. Place the steel 
square with one leg touching 
the point A and the other the 
point B, and so that DA is 
equal to DB. Mark the 
point D. The Hne CD will 
bisect the angle ACB. 



8. To construct an angle 
equal to a given angle (Fig. 
590). — Let BAC be the given 
angle. From A describe an Fig. 590 

arc DE cutting AB and AC 
at the points D and E. Draw the line FG. 
' A special tool is made for bisecting angles. 



the framing or steel square (Fig. 589).^ — 





^:-^ 






Fig. 591 



From F as a centre, with 



226 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 



the same radius, describe an arc IJ cutting FG at J. From J as a centre, 
with radius equal to ED, draw an arc cutting the arc I J at H. Draw FH 
and the angle HFG will be equal to BAG. 



A-9^"c-75 



E-bO' 




H-15' 



Fig. 592 




Fig. 593 




This can often be done by so adjusting a 
triangle and a straight-edge (T-square blade, 
another triangle or ruler) that when the tri- 
angle is slid against the straight-edge the 
angle can be drawn (Fig. 591). If the sides 
of the angles are not respectively parallel, try 
a combination of triangles. 

9. To lay out a protractor for obtaining 
certain angles (Fig. 592). — Draw the right 
angle ABC (Prob. 2). Bisect it with the line 
BD (Prob. 7), and trisect it with the lines 
BE and BF (Prob. 14). Bisect ABE and 
FBC with the lines BG and BH. This di- 
vides the right angle into divisions of 15° 
each, which is as far as the process can be 
carried with geometrical accuracy. Each of 
these divisions can be divided 
into degrees, with approximate 
accuracy, by first dividing the arc 
HC (Fig. 593) into three parts 
with dividers, as nearly as can be 
done by eye, and then dividing 
each of these thirds into five parts. 



B 



Fig. 594 



10. To draw an angle of 4^°. — 
Draw a right angle (Prob. 2) and 
bisect it (Prob. 7). To draw it with a triangle use the triangle having two 
angles of 45° each. 



To mark an angle of 45°, or a mitre, with the steel square. — Place the 
square as in Fig. 594, so that the same divisions on each blade of the square 
will fall on the line MO. Then the lines AG and BG will be at 45° with 
the line MO. Fig. 595 shows laying out the angle from the edge of a 
board. 



Appendix 



227 



II. To draw angles ofjo°, 60°, 120°, and 150° with dividers (Fig. 596). — 
On one side of a straight line, with any radius, draw a semi-circumfer- 
ence. With the same radius, and A and B as centres, strike arcs inter- 




Fig. 595 

secting the semi-circumference at C and D. Draw OC and OD. Angles 
AOC, COD, and BOD will be 60°. Bisect AOC (Prob. 7) and AOF will 
be 30°. FOD will be 90°. COB will be 120°. FOB will be 150°. Either 
of the other angles can be bisected in the same way. 




Fig. 597 



Fig. 598 



To draw these angles with a triangle, use the corresponding angles of 
the triangle (Figs. 560 and 561). 

The angles of an equilateral triangle (Fig. 597) are 60°, and 120° is 
made by projecting either of the sides, so these angles can be accurately 
found by drawing an equilateral triangle with dividers (Prob. 15), or 
approximately with the rule (Fig. 598). 



228 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 




Fig. 599 




If the bevel be applied to the steel square so that the distance intercepted 
on the bevel is twice that on one of the arms of the square, the angles which 
the blade of the bevel makes with the square will be 60° and 30°.^ 

12. To draw an- 
gles of jo° and 150°. 
— Describe a circle 
tangent to a straight 
line MO (Fig. 599). 
Draw a line from the 
centre of the circle 
perpendicular to the 
line MO at the point 
A. From the point A, with radius equal to the radius of the circle, 
strike arcs cutting the circle at B and C. Draw the lines AB and AC, 
which will give angles of 150° and 30° with the line MO. 

This method can 
be used at the 
edge of a board to 
set the bevel as in 
Fig. 601 Fig. 600. 

To draw an angle 
of 30°, 60°, 120°, 
or ijo° with the 
steel square. — Lay 
off on a straight 
Fig. 602 Hne (Fig. 601) the Fig. 603 

distances AD and 
DC equal to each other. Place the square as shown with the edge of the 
blade on the point C, and so that the distance BC equals DC. Then the 
angle BAD equals 30°, and the angle BCA equals 60°. The exterior an- 
gles BCO and BAN, being supplements of these angles, will equal 120° 
and 150°. 

To set the bevel at any required angle. — The angle can be laid out with 
compasses on a straight-edged board, to which the bevel can be applied. 

' In a right-angled triangle the hypothenuse of which is twice the length of the short 
side, the angles adjacent to the hypothenuse will be 30° and 60°, therefore by laying out a 
triangle of such proportions, with drawing tools, or by using the bevel set by means of the 
steel square (see below) , these angles can be obtained. 




\ 










N ^ 




\ / 


V'' 




X 


^' \ 




/ \ 






/' ^ 




Appendix 



229 




Lay out the angle from a line drawn parallel to the edge, as in Fig. 600, so 
that there will be no need to try to set the point of the compasses at the 
exact edge of the board. 

13. To find the centre of a square or rectangle (Fig. 602). — Draw diagonal 
lines from the opposite angles and they will intersect in the centre. 

The centre of a piece of wood can often be found by using compasses as 
in Fig. 603 or a gauge. This way can also be used for irregular shaped 
pieces, as the compasses will trace a small copy of the outline (Fig. 604). 

14. To trisect a right angle (Fig. 605). — Let ABC be the 
right angle. With B as a centre and any convenient radius 
draw an arc DE. With D and E as centres and with the same 
radius, draw arcs to cut DE in F and G. Draw BF and BG and 
these lines will trisect the right angle ABC.^ Fig. 604 

15. To construct a triangle, its three sides being 
given (Fig. 606). — Make DE equal to C. From D 
as a centre, with radius equal to B, describe an arc 
at F. From E as a centre, with radius equal to A, 
describe another arc, cutting the former at F. Join 
FD and FE ; and DEF is the triangle required. 

_C To find the length of the hypothenuse of a right- 
angled triangle, approximately, with the framing 
Fig. 605 square and rule, when the lengths of the other two 

sides are given; lay ofiE on the blades of the square 
the lengths of the given sides, as 6 and 9. By ap- 
plying the rule, the distance between these points 
can be measured and will be the length of the re- 
quired side (Fig. 607). Inches, quarter-inches, or 
any equal divisions can be taken as the unit of p. 
measurement This method can be used to find 

the length of a brace approximately. _A 

To draw an equilateral triangle with the steel _S 

square (Fig. 608). — Let AB be the length of one _£ 

side of the required triangle. Place the square as pig. 606 

shown, with the division 7 on the edge of one blade 

at the point A and the division 12 on the other blade touching the given 
line. Draw AC. In the same way, place the square against the point B 
' This applies only to a right angle. 





230 A Shorter Course in Woodworking 

and draw DB. Produce AC and DB to meet in E. AEB will be the 






Fig. 607 



Fig. 608 



Fig. 609 



equilateral triangle required. This method is not so accurate as to use 
compasses. 

16. To describe a square on a given line AB (Fig. 609). — Make the 
angle CAB a right angle, and AC equal to AB. Draw CD and BD parallel 
to AB and AC, and ABDC is the square required. 

This is most accurately done with dividers, but a square can be drawn 
for ordinary purposes with T-square and triangle. 

17. To draw an 

^C oblong or rectangle 

D ' \ with given sides, as 

A and B (Fig. 610). 
-— j.^^^ ^ — Make CD equal to 
B. At C erect a per- 
pendicular CE, From 
C with radius equal 
to A describe an arc 
cutting CE in F. 
Fig. 610 Fig. 611 From D with radius 

equal to A, and from 
F with radius equal to B, draw arcs intersecting at G. Draw FG and GD. 
Then CFGD is the oblong required. 

18. To bisect an arc and its chord (Fig. 611). — Let AB be the arc. 
CD, the perpendicular bisector of the chord, bisects the arc. 

19. To draw a circle or an arc tangent to a straight line at a given 
point (Fig. 612). — At the given point A erect a perpendicular AB (Prob. 





Appendix 



231 



2). With radius equal to that of the required circle or arc, and with the 
point A as centre, describe an arc cutting the perpendicular at C. C is the 
centre of the required circle or arc. 



20. To inscribe a circle in a square (Fig. 613). — Draw di- 
agonals within the square. Their intersection will be the 
centre of the required circle. Take radius equal to one half 
the length of the side of the square. 

21. To inscribe a square in a given circle (Fig. 614). 
— Let ABCDEFGH be the circle. Draw diameters A E and 
CG at right angles to each other. Draw AC, CE, EG, GA; 
and ACEG will be the square required.^ 




Fig. 612 




dius three times on the 
A 



To find points opposite each other on a cyclindrical stick, 
as required for boring. From a given point lay off the ra- Fig. 613 

circumference, and the last point 
should be opposite the first. But in all such 
work it is impossible to be absolutely accurate, 
therefore it is well to also measure around the 
other way and, if the points do not coincide, take 
a point midway between. 

The accuracy of a semi-circular hollow can 
be tested by applying the square as in Fig. 617, 
when the. angle of the square should touch the 
curve at any point. It is on this principle that 
the core-box plane is constructed for working 
out semi-circular hollows. 




Fig. 614 



22. To inscribe an octagon in a given circle 



' Thus in a semi-circle chords drawn from any point in the circumference to the ends 
of the diameter will form a right an- 
gle with each other. In Fig. 615 
DAE, DBE, and DCE will be right 
angles. Consequently the diameter 
of a circle can be found approxi- 
mately by applying a square with 
the angle touching the circumfer- 
ence of the circle as at C (Fig. 

616), and measuring the distance between the points A and B where the edge of the square 
cuts the circumference. Conversely: if the diameter of a circle be given, the circumference 
can be found by applying the square to the ends of the diameter. In whatever position 





Fig. 615 



Fig. 616 



232 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 




Fig 617 




(Fig. 614). — Proceed as in Prob. 21; then by bisecting the angles by 
diameters, or bisecting the chords, the circumference will be divided into 
eight equal parts. Draw AB, BC, CD, DE, 
EF, FG, GH, HA; and ABCDEFGH will be 

the octagon required. 

23, To inscribe a hexa- 
gon or an equilateral tri- 
angle in a given circle (Fig. 
618). — With the radius of 
the circle describe a succes- 
sion of arcs cutting the cir- 
cle in the points A, B, C, 
D, E, F. Join these points 
and ABCDEF will be the hexagon required. Join every other point, as A, 
C, E ; and ACE will be the equilateral triangle required. 

24. To inscribe a circle in a triangle (Fig. 619). — Bisect two of 

the angles, as ^ BAC and ABC (Prob. 7), producing the 

lines to intersect J><^'^-~j\ i^ D. From D as a centre, with radius 
equal to ^y ^J^S\ the perpendicular distance from D to any 

of the ^^^ I \,_^ K sides, describe a circle. 

25. To inscribe a pentagon in a 
given circle (Fig. 620). — LetABCDE 
be the given circle. Draw diameters 
AF and GH at right angles. Bisect GO at I. With I as centre and I A 
as radius describe an arc AK cutting GH at K. From ^ 

A as centre, with AK as radius, describe an arc KE 
cutting the circumference at E. With AE as radius de- 
scribe a succession of arcs cutting the circumference in D, 
C, and B. Join these points and ABCDE will be the 
pentagon required. 

26. To inscribe a polygon of any number of sides within Fig. 620 

applied, the point (angle) of the square will touch the circumference. Nails can be driven 
at A and B, and by sliding the square around with its edges bearing against the nails, the 
angle or point of the square will describe the semi-circumference required. Such methods 
can be used in practical work where exactness is not required, but are apt to be somewhat 
inaccurate. See also Fig. 628. 




J ^ 

a" 



Appendix 



233 



a given circle (Fig. 621). — Draw a diameter AD and divide it into as 
many equal parts (6 for example) as the required polygon has sides (Prob. 
6). From A and D as centres, with AD as 
radius, draw arcs to intersect in G. From G 
draw a line through the second point (2 or 4) 
cutting the circumference of the circle in C. 
With radius CD draw a succession of arcs cut- 
ting the circumference in B, A, F, E. Join these 
points and ABCDEF will be the polygon 
required. 

27. To construct a regular pentagon one side 
being given (Fig. 622). — From A and B as cen- 
tres, with radius AB, draw arcs intersecting in 
G and H. With H as centre, and with radius 
HA, draw an arc cutting the other two arcs in 
D and F. Draw GH cutting the last arc in I. Draw lines from D and F, 
through I, cutting the first two arcs in C and E, Draw AC and BE. 
From C and E as centres, with radius AC, draw arcs intersecting in J. 
Draw CJ and EJ. ABEJC will be the pentagon required. 





Fig. 622 





Fig. 624 



28. To construct an octagon within a given square (Fig. 623). — Let 
ABCD be the given square. Draw the diagonals AC and DB intersecting 
at E. From A, B, C, D, as centres, with radius AE, or BE, etc., describe 
arcs cutting the sides of the square in F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M. Draw LH, 
GK, IM, and FJ; and LHGKIMJF will be the octagon required. 



To lay off an octagon in a given square, 
624). — Bisect side AB of the square at point C. 



with the steel square (Fig. 
Place the square as shown 



234 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 



so that the distance AC taken on the edge of one blade comes at the point 

A, and the same distance on the other blade touches the line AB at E. 

The point E is at one angle of the octagon. The 
exterior angle, to form an octagon, is 45°, so that 
the rest of the figure can be laid off either by- 
repeating the process or by the gauge and angles 
of 45°. ■ 

To lay out the lines approximately — hold the 
square or rule so that there will be 24 divisions 
(inches or fractions of an inch, according to the 
size of the stick) between the edges of the wood. 

Mark points 7 divisions from each edge. Gauge lines through these points 

parallel to the edges (Fig. 625). 




Fig. 625 



29. To construct a hexagon on a given side (Fig. 626). — From A and 
B, with radius AB, describe arcs cutting each other in C. With C as centre 
and radius CA or CB, describe a circle whose cir- 
cumference will pass through A and B. Apply 
the distance AB around the circumference as 
chords, AD, DE, EF, FG, GB. ADEFGB will be 
the required hexagon. 

To lay out the lines for making a square stick 
hexagonal, first lay out a hexagon on the end of 
the stick as in Fig. 623. Then with the gauge 
mark lines on the sides of the stick, as in Fig. 452. 

Fig. 626 

30. To find the centre of a circle of which 
the whole circumference, or an arc, is given (Fig. 627). — Draw the chords 
AB and BD. Bisect the chord AB at E and the chord BD at F. From 
E and F draw lines perpendicular to AB and BD, 
intersecting at C. C will be the centre of the 
circle. 





31. Through three given points to draw an arc 
. (Fig. 627). — Let A, B, and D be the given points. 
Draw AB and BD. Bisect them at E and F. 
Erect perpendiculars at E and F intersecting at 
C. C will be the centre of the arc passing through A, B, and C. This 
problem is essentially the same as Prob. 30. 



Fig. 627 



Appendix 



235 



To draw this arc when the centre is out of reach, drive nails at A and C, 
make a triangular frame of strips of wood (Fig. 628), and slide it around 
with a pencil or marking point at B, keeping the frame 
pressed against the nails as it is moved. The pencil 
will describe the required arc. 




32. To draw an ellipse, the two diameters being 

given (Fig. 629). — Let AB (Fig. 629) be the longer 

diameter and DE the shorter diameter, drawn r- ^ o 

. Fig- 628 

perpendicular to each other and intersecting at 

their middle points. From the point E with radius equal to one half 

the longer diameter, describe arcs cutting AB in F and F. These points 

are called the foci of the ellipse. At these two points drive pins or nails ; 

also a third at point D, and tie a string quite tightly around the points D, 



-^ 


--?S!«^ 


' 




^.^.^^^L^ 


— ' , 1 ■ "'rH— ' -»— r 


^ A /r ■ : 


T^v jb 


^-- 


E 


, 



Fig. 629 



Fig. 630 



F, and F. Withdraw the pin at D and substitute a pencil. The pencil, 
when moved around so as to keep the string taut, will trace an ellipse (Fig. 
630). The string should be of a kind that will stretch as little as possible. ' 

An ellipse can be drawn approximately by constructing a rectangle of 
the length and width of the required ellipse, as ABCD in Fig. 631. Divide 
AE into any convenient number of equal parts, and AG into the same num- 
ber of equal parts. Draw lines joining these points as shown. Do the 



' In an ellipse the sum of any two lines drawn from any point in the curve to the foci 
is the same, hence the method just given. On the same principle an instrument called a 
trammel can be used. 



236 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 



same with the other corners of the rectangle. Draw a line through the 
inside intersections of the slanting lines and it will be very nearly an ellipse. 

Another method: mark on a strip of cardboard or wood from a given 
point A (Fig. 632) the lengths of the long and short diameters of the required 
ellipse. Place the marking point at A and move the points B and C along 
the long and short diameters. The marking point (A) will trace the required 
ellipse. Or, a series of points can be marked and the curve drawn through 
them by hand. A square can be placed on the diameters as shown to help 
guide the points. 



r ^ 



r 



Fig. 631 




Fig. 632 



There are other methods of describing an ellipse, but the one first given 
is the most convenient for ordinary work. All methods of drawing ellipses 
with compasses are inaccurate, because an ellipse is not a circular curve in 
any part.^ 

For curves which are not arcs of circles, in cases where free-hand drawing 
will not do, French curves are used. These are made of thin material like 
the triangles, with the edges cut in various curves. These curved edges 
are moved around until a part or parts are found which will fit the curve 
desired. 



' For much common work compound curves formed of a nimiber of circular curves 
of different radii are used. Fig. 633 shows a curve with 5 centres, for an arch, which for 
ordinary work does not differ essentially from half of an ellipse. Let AB be the long 
diameter, or span, and CD one half the short diameter or rise. Draw AC. Draw EF per- 
pendicular to AC. Lay ofE DG equal DC, and describe a semi-circle on AG. Lay off 
DH equal IC and describe the arc JH. Lay off AK equal DL and from L as a centre de- 
scribe the arc KJ, cutting JH at J. L, J, and F will be the centres for half the curve. 
The other half is drawn in the same way. 



Appendix 



237 




To draw symmetrical curves free-hand the simplest way for practical 
work usually is to lay out a centre line on a piece of paper, draw one half 
of the curve, fold the paper at the middle and trace the 
other half from the first half, — or the first half can be 
cut out and the paper reversed (Fig. 634). 

SOME TYPES OF CONSTRUCTION 

These few simple examples are not given as a course of 
work. Different workers will prefer many different de- Fig. 634 

signs, but these typical forms are simply to show work- 
manlike modes of construction and some principles of wide application 
to many common objects. 

160. Boxmaking. — Common boxmaking is now done almost entirely by 
machiiiery, but the beginner should learn to make a good box by hand. The 
making of nice boxes is largely a matter of accurate joints. Fig. 635 shows 
a common type, in which the sides are first nailed to the ends and then the 
bottom and top put on. In the majority of boxes the sides and ends should 
be got out with the grain of the wood running horizontally, that is, around 

the box. This 

gives a strong 

edge all around 

at the top and 

bottom, and when 

the sides and ends 

swell and shrink 

the change will be 

the same in each. 
^'^■^^5. ^itj, certain ^ig- ^36 

joints this arrangement allows the use of glue, which would be of little use 
if the grain of the wood should run in different directions. The best way 
to fasten such a box as that in Fig. 635 is with nails. Toeing the nails 
adds strength. (See page 64.) To nail together, first mark the places for 
the nails so that they will neither be too near the edge of the sides, nor be 
in danger of coming out through either side of the ends. Bore holes in the 
sides, and drive the nails until they just prick through. This will help in 
placing the parts in position (Fig. 636). In hard wood it may be necessary 





238 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 



to bore holes in the ends, slightly smaller than the nails. Glue is of little 
use with such joints, and screws do not hold very strongly in endwood, i.e., 
when driven with the grain. Other more difficult joints are shown in 
Figs. 384, 385, 391, and 431. 

Fig. 637, shows other ways of arranging the sides, ends, bottom, and top. 





Fig. 638 




Fig. 639 




Fig. 637 



Fig. 640 



The bottom is often fitted between the sides and ends, so as not to show; 
but as it afterwards swells, or shrinks, or both, it may either open a crack at 
the side or perhaps force the joint apart (Fig. 638). A better way for nice 
work is to fit the bottom into a rabbet (page 1 59) , cut in the lower edge of 
the sides and ends (Fig. 639 showing box bottom up). Thus the bottom 
can be loose enough to allow for expansion and contraction. The lid or 
cover can be hinged to the top edge of the back of the box or arranged as in 



Appendix 



239 



Fig. 640. Plain lids, for everything but rough or temporary work, should 
be strengthened either by cleats at the ends (page 157), by cleats on the 
under side (page 157), or by framing (page 167). 

Box joints are sometimes mitred (page 142). It is, however, a poor way 
in point of strength and only a skilful mechanic can make a box with nicely 
fitted mitred joints that will hold permanently. Mitred joints can, however, 
be strengthened by splines or keys — pieces let into saw-kerfs. (See page 

I43-) 

Various joints can be made by machine. A rabbeted joint (Fig. 641) 
can be made by hand, but much quicker with a circular-saw. It is a strong 






Fig. 641 



Fig. 642 



Fig. 643 



neat joint, and shows less end-wood than the common butt-joint. If the 
corner be rounded (Fig. 642), the joint is quite inconspicuous. Glue can 
also be used to advantage with this joint on account of the shoulder. 

Where the box does not open at the top but lower down, as in Fig. 643, 
the best way is to put the box tight together and then saw it apart. Gauge 
the line by which to saw it open, and do not drive nails too near this line- 
Saw the box open carefully on the line. Some people gauge two lines and 
saw between them. The sawing can be done first from one corner and then 
from another. This can be done best with the circular saw, letting the 
saw project above the saw-bench only a trifle more than the thickness of the 
side of the box. (See page. 91) Joint the edges carefully with the jointer 
or jack-plane. Let the plane rest on two edges (Fig. 644), for accuracy and 
to lessen the danger of tearing the edges. That is, while planing one edge, 
let the plane also rest on the adjacent edge.^ 

' This applies also to planing any edges or surfaces fastened at an angle, as in various 
kinds of framed work. 



240 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 



If the box cover must slide in and out careful grooving (see page 159) 
is required if done by hand, but it can be quickly done by machine. (See 





Fig. 644 



Fig 645 



page 96.) A good form for a plain chest is shown in Fig. 645. The bottom 

can be fitted to a groove cut around on the inside. 

Care must be taken to test the angles with the square, and so guard 

against winding, in making a nice box, as with all framed work. If the 

bottom and top are got out accurately they will help to make the box square. 

With glued joints waste pieces should be placed over the joints (across the 

grain of the sides) to prevent the 
work being marred by the clamps 
and to distribute the pressure (Fig. 
194). 

The final smoothing of the outside 
should be done after the box has 
been permanently put together, and 
plenty of time allowed for the glue 
to dry. The inside must, of course, 

be smoothed before putting together. 

Where several boards are required to cover the top or bottom of a large 

box, if you wish to have as few cracks as possible and to avoid the swelling 

and shrinking across the grain as much as you can, lay 

the boards lengthways, but if you merely wish for 

strength, lay them crossways. The sides and ends of 

chests or large boxes are often panelled, and some- 
times fitted to grooves or rabbets cut in posts at each 

corner (Fig. 646). 

There is no better or more workmanlike way to put boxes together than 

by dovetailing (see page 154), but this should not be undertaken until one 




Fig. 646 




Fig. 647 



Appendix 



241 



has acquired considerable skill. Box corners are sometimes do welled, but 
this is by no means a strong joint, unless made with unusual skill. The 
principal advantage of dowelling is to prevent having nail holes show. 
Corners can sometimes be reinforced inside to good advantage by triangular 
corner-pieces or posts, glued or screwed in place (Fig. 647). 





Fig. 648 



161. Sled Making. — The ranners and cross-bars of a sled (Fig. 648) 
should be of straight-grained oak, maple, ash, or other strong wood. ]/&" 
stock will do for the runners of a common hand-sled. Saw the curved parts 
of the runners with the band-saw, jig-saw, turning-saw, or compass-saw; or 
remove most of the waste wood with the common hand-saw, and trim to the 
line with drawshave, spokeshave, or plane. Get out the 
cross-bars about 2" wide and i" thick, making a tenon 
with one shoulder at each end (Fig. 649).^ In marking 
these tenons and the length of the cross-bars, lay the 
pieces fiat upon the bench, clamp them together, and 
mark all at once (Fig. 4). To lay out the mortises, 
place the runners together on edge (Fig. 651) and square 
lines across both on the top edges at the points where 
the cross-bars are to go, 2" apart (or the width of the Fig. 650 

.cross-bars). Continue these lines upon both sides of 
each runner. Set the gauge at '^'i" and mark the line AB (Figs. 652 and 



Fig. 649 



J 



' If the sled is large and heavy it may be better to make the cross-bars 1 34" thick and 
to have two shoulders (Fig. 650). 



242 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 



653) upon both sides of each runner. Set the gauge again at iH" and 
mark as before CD. Cut the mortises and tenons. (See page 144.) 



W 




Fig. 651 



9 



Fig. 652 



W 



X 



Fig. 653 




Fig. 654 



After fitting, fasten each tenon with a screw driven down from the top 
edge of the runner. A small L-iron at each joint adds much to the strength 

(Fig. 654). The seat should be screwed 
to the cross-bars. 3^" is thick enough 
for a common hand-sled seat. Apply a 
coat of linseed oil (hot is best) and finish 
with paint or with one coat of shellac fol- 
lowed by two or more coats of varnish. ' 






Fig. 655 



Fig. 656 



162. Horses or Trestles (Fig. 655) may be from 18" to 2^3" in height, 
or even more, as may be required. For the tops get out and square up 
pieces of pine from i3^" x 3" to 3" x 6". in section, and from 2' to 3' long. 

' It is best to have the iron or steel runners put on before finishing, as the finish might 
be burned in fitting the hot ends of the runners. 



Appendix 243 

Select the best sides for the tops and mark each end like Fig. 656 (show- 
ing top and bottom) with the pencil, square, and gauge, using the bevel, or 





Fig. 657 




Fig. 658 




Fig. 659 



measunng carefully that the slant may be the same for both legs With 
saw, or saw and chisel, remove the parts marked (Fig. 657) Trim ac 
curately to the lines. Get out eight legs of Y^" stock, 4- or <' wide 
(accordmg to the size of the horses), and of such 
length as will give the required height, marking 
and squaring all together. Nail or screw the legs 
in place with 2" nails or i^" screws, keeping the 
mner edges of the tops of the legs even with the 
tops of the horses (Fig. 658). Get out the cross- 
braces of ^" board and saw the 
ends at the same bevel as the 
legs. Use the bevel or measure 
the angle. Nail on the cross- 
braces. Saw or plane off the 




Fig. 660 




Fig. 661 




projecting ends of the legs on 
top. If the horses do not stand 
evenly on a true floor see 
page 256. Smooth the tops 
carefully, ^ 



163. A Kennel, if small, can 
'^' ^^^ Fig- 663 be made much like a common 

warp'l''x'v' ror°J^' ' v'' '""T- '^^^^ *"° ^'^'^^ ^^ P-^' ^r any wood not likely to 

squar'e bevel and ' '^ "\ '' "f^' ''' ^^'"°" ^^^"^ ^^'^- ''^^ '^^ ^^e legs, with rule, 
square, bevel and gauge, and cut them with saw and chisel. Get out eight legs and cut 

can also be glued. Fit on cross-braces as described above. Horses for heavy work can be 
made of plank or joist (Figs. 662 and 663). ^ 




244 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 



box, but for a larger structure, as in Fig. 664, it is well to make a frame. Use 
small joists or strips of plank of any size from 1Y2" to 2". First get out the 
sills or bottom pieces, halving (see page 140) and nailing the corners. Fasten 




Fig. 664 



Fig. 665 



the corner posts in place, and on top of them the plates (a second hori- 
zontal frame corresponding to the sills) . Square the framework and see that 
it is free from winding. Hold it in place temporarily, until the boarding 
is put on, by diagonal strips (Fig. 665). Next get out rafters for the roof, 
with their ends cut at an angle of 45°, or whatever pitch is desired. Use a 
strip of board at the top for a ridge-pole. Lay the floor before the sides are 
put on. Cover the sides and ends with sheathing or matched boards laid 
vertically, and cut a doorway and a small window in the back gable. The 
roof -boards can be laid horizontally and shingled, or covered with other 
roofing material. Matched boards laid up and down and painted make a 
good roof, in which case a square stick about 2" square should be used for a 
ridge-pole. Put saddle-boards on the ridge. Paint with three coats. 
Another doorway is shown in Fig. 666. 






Fig. 666 



Fig. 667 



Fig. 668 



164. Curved Forms. — Circular work is often built up in layers (Figs. 667 
and 668), each made of several sections, "breaking joints" in the different 



Appendix 



245 




^^ 



layers, and screwed or nailed or glued together. The 

ends can be cut squarely or obliquely. Sometimes a 

single thickness is halved, or otherwise joined, at 

the ends (Fig. 669). The grain of the pieces should 

cross as shown and the sections be fastened firmly, 

particularly near the ends. These methods apply 

both to small work, as picture frames, and to large 

forms, as cistern curbings. Even circular houses 

have been built in this way. More complicated 

methods are sometimes used. 

To make a curved table-leg, for example, as in 

Fig. 670, the best way is to work it out of a solid 

square post.^ This is best done with band-saw 

or jig-saw. After it has been cut to shape from one 

side (Fig. 671), the pattern must be marked again, but in transferring a 

fiat pattern to a curved surface, the curves must either be drawn directly 
upon the wood to match the other side, or points in the curve 
projected from the pattern to the wood, as the shape will not be 
correct if the pattern be bent to fit the wood. The waste pieces 
can be used to block up the main piece if necessary (Fig. 672), so 
that it will rest firmly on the saw-table while sawing the second 





Fig. 670 



Fig. 671 



Fig. 672 



Fig. 673 



time. If done by hand it is a good plan to make saw-cuts nearly to the 
line first, which lessens the danger of cutting or splitting beyond the line. 
(See page 33). Cabinet makers often build up such crooked forms by gluing 
on pieces where required, as in Fig. 673. This takes more time but less wood, 
and usually is the cheapest way. A solid piece is better, however, in most 
cases. To hold odd-shaped pieces for shaping, contrive some combination 
of clamps, hand-screws, or vise, with blocks if necessary. Fig. 199 gives a 
suggestion suitable to some cases. 



' Baluster stock or "squares" can be bought of different sizes, suitable for such work. 



246 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 



165. A Canoe Paddle. — Spruce is a good wood, light, tough, and easy 
to work. Birch, maple, and ash are used. Select a very straight-grained 



piece. 



ly^' or I, 



^" thick. Draw a centre line along the 
side before marking the pattern (Fig. 674) as a help in 
making the outline symmetrical. From 5" to 63^" is a 
good width and from 5' to 6' a good length, but the 
exact dimensions are matters of individual preference. 
Saw the outline with band-saw, jig-saw, bow-saw, or 
compass-saw; or remove most of the wood with the 
hand-saw; or make saw-cuts nearly to the line (Fig. 
91), and finally trim to the line with spokeshave, draw- 
shave, chisel, or plane. Next draw a centre line along 
the edge, lay off the thickness at different points, and 
draw the outline of the edge. Taper the thickness of the 
blade toward the end, keeping the required midrib thick- 
ness along the centre line. Then gradually shave the 
sides from the middle to the edges with drawknife, plane, 
or spokeshave. Round the shaft with plane or spoke- 
shave (see page 160), and shape the handle or knob with 
spokeshave, plane, gouge, chisel, and file. Smooth the 
whole paddle with scraper and sandpaper. Finish with 
one coat of linseed oil, one of shellac, and two or more 
coats of varnish rubbed down. 

166. Hull of Toy or Model Boat. — If the hull is not too 
large, it is best to cut it from a solid block; but if quite 
large, it may be necessary to build it in layers (Fig. 680), 
or to build up a block of several pieces, for it is hard to 
get suitable wood in large blocks and it has become very 
expensive. The wood should be thoroughly seasoned, 
Fig. 674 straight-grained, and free from knots and checks. Noth- 

ing is better than white pine. Straight-grained mahogany is good, but 
costly for a large boat. 

Take, for example, a simple model of the fin-keel type (Fig. 675).' 

' Three views are usually drawn for a boat: the sheer plan, the body plan, and the half- 
breadth plan. These correspond to the front or side elevation, end elevation, and plan 
in ordinary drawings (see page 217), and give side, end, and top views of the boat, — or of 
one half of it, as the sides are alike. Several equidistant horizontal lines are drawn across 



Appendix 



247 




To cut it from a solid block, square the block to dimensions, and draw upon 
the sides the sheer plan, or side view (Fig. 676). To remove the wood to 
this line with hand tools, either saw off most of the waste wood with the 
hand-saw 
(Fig. 677), 
and then trim 
to the line 
with draw- 
shave, plane, 
chisel, or 
spokeshave ; 
or make a 
series of saw- 
c u t s nearly 
to the line 
(Fig. 91) and 
then trim as 
before. The 
shape can be 

accurately and quickly cut with a band-saw or jig-saw. 
The surface need not be smoothed, as it will be cut 
away in rounding the hull later. Next, make a centre line lengthways on 
the top of the block and transfer the half-breadth plan on one side of this 
centre line (Fig. 676). Turn the pattern over and mark again on the other 




Fig. 675 




Fig. 676 



the plans. One of these represents the Hne of the water when the boat has its proper 
load, and is called the load water-line. The other lines parallel to it represent other levels, 
at equal distances apart. Other lines also show vertical, horizontal, longitudinal, and 
•cross sections, at regular intervals. These details are fully described in works on yacht 
(.(and model yacht) building. 



248 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 





^^^^^^^"^- 



^^^^^^^77»^-_ 



Fig. 677 



side of the line. The centre line can be made on the bottom also. Cut the 
top outline as before. If band-saw or jig-saw are used, save the waste pieces 
cut off in sawing the sheer-plan and use them to block up the ends so that 
the piece can be held firmly while sawing the top outHne. (See page 245.) 
The deck-sheer (Fig. 675) can now be cut or be left until later. 

Fasten the block bot- 
tom side up in the 
vise, or upon the 
bench top and cut the 
outside roughly to 
shape, with the draw- 
shave, wide chisel, or 
spokeshave, working 
from the centre toward 
the ends, as a rule. 
The chisel can often be 
used across the grain 
(Fig. 92). Finish 
most of the shaping 
with spokeshave o r 
plane. To make the 
two sides alike, and of 
the correct shape, cut 
templates, or patterns, 
of cardboard of the 
shape of the hull at 
different sections, and test the work by them. Before hollowing the inside, 
gauge a line around the top, Y2' from the edge, except at the bow and 
stern, where a greater distance should be allowed (Fig. 678). The hull 
should be held firmly by clamps or in some way, so that both hands can be 
used in cutting. Bore one or more holes (according to the size of the boat) 
downward from the top (Fig. 678), but leave at least Yi' of wood below 
them. Run a groove with a small gouge inside of the line marked (Fig. 678), 
and hollow out the hull with a larger gouge, cutting toward the middle. 
The holes will help. 

Finally cut straight down from the line marked on the top, until the 
thickness of the sides is about 34" (Fig. 679). The gunwale should be 




Fig. 678 



Appendix 



249 



thicker than the rest, to stiffen the sides and give a bearing for nailing the 
deck. Below this point, make the thickness of the sides as uniform as you 
can, except that a thicker place can be left at the bottom where the keel is 
to be fastened (Fig. 679). One fourth of an inch is thin enough for any 
but a skilled workman to make the sides. Make templates for the inside. 
A good deal can be told by the sense of feeling, gaug- 
ing the thickness between the thumb and finger. Use a 
flatter gouge for smoothing the inside. If the sheer of 
the deck has not yet been cut, mark it now, using a 
thin strip or flexible ruler (see page 21), and trim to 




Fig. 679 



the line. Sandpaper the outside, first with No. i or i^ 



and 



and finally with No. 00. Apply at least two coats of paint inside 
three outside. It is a good plan to use a coat of hot linseed oil first. ^ 

Unless the boat is quite small it is well to fit in two or three deck beams 
to connect the sides and support the deck (Fig. 679). These can be of thin 
stuff (perhaps yV' thick and 3^" wide), set on edge and slightly arched, 




Fig. 680 



with the ends fitted into gains cut in the sides, and nailed with fine brads. 
The deck should be thin (I" or y^")- Mark the deck outline and cut it 
just outside of the line. Fasten small blocks of wood to the under side of 
the deck where attachments for the rigging are to be fastened. Paint the 

' To build with layers a sufficient number of boards are sawed as in Fig. 680, glued to- 
gether, and then trimmed to shape. This is not so safe a way as to use a solid block, for the 
joints are liable to separate after a while. In laying out the pieces, draw a centre line along 
each side and end, and a midship line across each side and edge, so that the layers can be 
put together accurately. The outside curves can be sawed by either band-saw or jig-saw, 
but the inside ones require a jig-saw or bow-saw. In gluing the layers together use plenty 
of clamps or hand-screws, and put pieces between the jaws and the wood to distribute the 
pressure. 



250 A Shorter Course in Woodworking 

lower side, smear the top edge of the hull with thick white lead, and nail 
the deck in place with fine brads, perhaps 3^" in length, or fine brass screws 
can be used. Trim the edge of the deck, and paint the outside. The deck 
can be set in a rabbet cut in the gunwale. ' 

167. Furniture. — Begin with simple articles. First attend to the block- 
form or general proportions of the object. No amount of carving or inlay- 
ing, however beautiful in itself, will make an ill-shaped, badly-proportioned 
article a thing of beauty; while a well-shaped and well-proportioned object 
will be pleasing to the eye if free from decoration of any kind. 

In undertaking a really nice piece of cabinet-work, you must hold your- 
self to a higher standard, as to accuracy of detail, than is necessary for 
much of the other work often done by amateurs. Many slight inaccuracies, 
of little consequence in the rougher kinds of work, become such conspicuous 
defects in cabinet-work as to detract much from the satisfaction which 
should be taken in home-made articles. Choose therefore simple forms, 
easily put together, for your first attempts. 

First and foremost, when you come to the actual work, use thoroughly 
seasoned wood. This is an essential of making permanently satisfactory 
furniture. Be content with the more easily worked woods. Begin with 
plain, straight-grained material. 

White pine is suitable for many things. It is one of the best woods to 
''stand" or hold its shape, and if not desired of the natural color it can be 
painted or stained. Whitewood, like pine, is easy to work, durable, can be 
obtained in wide boards, can be painted, and takes stain exceedingly well. 
Cherry, when soft and straight-grained, is easy to work and to finish, and 
is (when highly figured or wavy) one of the most beautiful woods. Mahogany 
is a wood of great beauty and durability, and holds its shape exceedingly 
well ; but the beginner should confine himself at first to the lighter, softer, 
straighter-grained varieties. Oak in its softer, straight-grained forms is 
well suited to the work of the beginner. It is durable and an article 
made of oak will stand more abuse without serious defacement than if made 
of almost any other wood used for furniture. Quartered oak is a very 
satisfactory wood. It can be stained if desired. Many other woods are 

' The fin can also be made of wood and screwed on, or be cut from sheet metal (brass or 
sheet-iron). The rudder can be fixed in a brass tube, the ends of which can be set in lead. 
The mast can also be stepped in a brass tube, or simply passed through the deck to the 
bottom, where it can be stepped in a smaller hole, or in a block. 



Appendix 251 

used, as chestnut, sycamore, ash, birch, beech, maple, butternut. Buy stock 
that is as true as you can find and see that it is planed as true as possible. 

The pieces, when fitted, should come together easily, and not require to 
be sprung, twisted, or bent in order to put the article together. It is the 
practice with skilled workmen to put a piece of furniture completely to- 
gether once (without glue or nails) to see that everything fits right, before 
putting together permanently. This precaution should not be neglected. 
Put a piece of case work together horizontally upon horses or flat on its 
back or face, not in an upright position. 

After fitting the parts of a piece of furniture and before gluing, smooth 
such parts as cannot readily be smoothed after putting together, as in 
tables and chairs where the rails are often below the surface level of the 
legs and had best be smoothed first. Surfaces which can be smoothed as 
well after the article is put together can be left until the end, because there 
is always the liability of injury during the process of the work. Adjoining 
surfaces which are to be flush, as door-frames (Fig. 479), should not as a 
rule be finally planed and smoothed until after gluing. Clamp the parts 
of the work together thoroughly when using glue. Allow time enough before 
removing the clamps. 

It is surprising how much "out of square" and how winding the result of 
careful work will sometimes be if it is not tested as the parts are put together. 
In addition to applying the square to the angles, using the large steel square 
when you can, there are many cases in which measuring diagonals is a good 
test. Alter the angles of the work until the two opposite diagonals are equal, 
when the work will, of course, be rectangular. This is a good way for 
large case work, using a stick, or fitting two adjustable sticks (Fig. 9) be- 
tween the angles, when the latter can be altered until the diagonals are 
equal. While testing for squareness, also look for winding, by sighting 
across the front or back, using winding-sticks (Fig. 228) if necessary. 
When the work has a back fitted in, as in the case of a bookcase or cabinet, 
this will help much in the final adjustment. It is well to use corner-blocks 
freely in the angles of furniture where they will not show (Fig. 200). 

Furniture should always be finally hand-planed and scraped. You 
cannot get the surface too smooth, for slight defects become very noticeable 
in the finished work. For the work of the amateur no finish is better than 
shellac or wax. When the work is made of parts which can be readily 
separated — such as are joined without glue or nails — it is best to take the 



252 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 



work apart before finishing. Unhinge doors and take off locks, escutcheons, 
mirror-plates, handles, and the like. Take out removable shelves, backs, 
and all detachable parts. Finish all these parts separately and then put 
the work together again. 

i68. Picture and Mirror Frames made of prepared moulding will, in 
most cases, have to be mitred at the corners. This 
can be best done with mitre-box (see page 85), cir- 
cular-saw (see page 89), or trimmer (see page 61). 
If the moulding is even slightly sprung or twisted 
f\ Ij this is hard to do and trimming with the plane 

^ ■ ^' is often necessary. The mitre shooting-board is some- 

times useful (Fig. 85). None of the joints should be 
sprung or twisted to fit. Also guard against winding 
by sighting across the face, and test the angles with 
the square. The mitred joints are usually glued and 
nailed. (See page 142.) It is well as a rule to fasten 
the pieces in pairs — two corners diagonally opposite, 
and ' then the remaining corners. In some cases the 
work should also be clamped together. If the 
wood has not been finished blocks can be glued 
near the ends of the pieces and hand-screws 
applied (Fig. 681).^ 

For a plain frame nothing is better than a 
joint with mortise and tenon (Fig. 683), the rab- 
bet at the back being cut through to the ends of the shorter 
pieces (those having the tenons), but stopped before reach- 
ing the ends of the longer ones which have the mortises. 
(See Circular-saw, page 97.) The latter pieces should be 
got out too long, so as to overlap a little at the ends. The 
inside edge should be smoothed before putting together, but the final 
planing and smoothing of the rest should be done after the frame is glued 
together. 




Fig. 681 




Fig. 682 



• Another way is to lay the frame flat, nailing strips a short distance outside of each of 
the corners and driving wedges between these strips and the frame (Fig. 682). Also 
by putting blocks at the corners, passing a doubled cord around and inserting a stick, the 
cord can be twisted until the frame is held tightly. Picture-frame makers have clamping 
devices. 



Appendix 



253 



In mitring a frame of rabbeted moulding, measure at the inner corner of 
the rabbet, so that the size wih be right for the picture or glass. The rabbet 

is usually about ^ of an inch square, 
and in laying out the dimensions of 
frame to fit glass, or of glass to fit frame, 
allow as much as ^ of an inch for irregu- 
larities, or it may be necessary to trim either rabbet or glass. 
The rabbet of mirror frames must be colored black — also 
of any frame to hold plate glass — on account of the reflec- 
tion. Small pieces of plate glass can be held in place by strips, 
but large plates, as for a mirror, should 
be fastened by little pieces of soft pine, 
one or two inches long, bevelled on one 
side. These short pieces, glued on one 
side, and lightly pressed into the crack 
around the glass (Fig. 684), wedge the glass in place 
securely and, owing to the softness of the wood, not 
too rigidly. 

169. Tables. — Most 
common tables come un- 
der a few types of con- 
struction. Fig. 685 
shows a simple form. 
The legs should be of plank and can be halved where they cross, 
page 140.) The rest can be of "yi" stock. 
Extra cleats can be put under the top if needed 
for stiffness. 

Figs. 686 and 687 show common forms, although 






Fig. 683. 



Fig. 684 



(See 





Fig. 685 



Fig. 686 



the details of shape and design vary greatly. For a small or medium-sized 
table the legs can be from 13^2" to 2}/^" square. Square them and cut to 



254 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 



length. The height of an average table is about 30", although many are 
made lower. If the legs are to be tapered toward the bottom, the taper- 
ing should not extend to the top but to a point a little below the rails, or 
cross-bars which, connect the legs. A good way is to taper the insides only. 





Fig. 687 



Fig. 688 



Fig. 689 



Fig. 690 





Fig. 691 



Fig. 692 



leaving the outside surfaces straight. If to be tapered on all four sides, 
plane down two opposite sides and then the other two. Cut mortises on 
the two inner sides of the legs to receive tenons cut on the ends of the rails 

(Fig. 688. See page 144).' Ji" stock 

is thick enough for rails for ordinary 

cases. When the parts are fitted, put 

together two legs and the connecting 

rail, using glue and clamping the joints 

securely until dry. Put the two op- 
posite legs together in the same way, 

and finally join these two sides with the remaining rails, 
gluing and clamping as before. Glue and screw cor- 
ner-blocks in the angles (Fig. 690). The joints can 
also be pinned (Fig. 691. See page 148). 

To fasten the top of a table to 
the framework beneath, and in 
similar cases, first bore a large 
hole or "screw-pocket" on the 
inside of the rail, in a case like 
Fig. 692, an inch or so from the 
top, and bore down into this 





Fig. 693 



Fig. 694 



' The mortises in heavy legs can be open at the top (Fig. 689), but this tends to weaken 
a slender leg. 



Appendix 255 

hole with a slight slant from the top edge. A slanting cut can be made 



Fig. 695 




Fig. 696 



Fig. 697 






Fig. 698 



from below with the gouge if necessary to allow the screw-head to pass 
(Fig. 693).^ See Counterboring, page 177. 

To put on the top, lay it face 
downward on the horses, place 
the frame of the table in posi- 
tion and screw to the top. It 
is well to leave the final scraping 
and sandpapering of the top un- 
til the table is all put together. 

Tables are often fastened 
partly by keys, wedges, or pins 
(Fig, 696) , as explained on page 
150. In some, all of the tenons 
run through and can be trimmed 
to protrude slightly (Fig. 697). 

The variety of small stands and tabourets is great. Designs like Fig. 698, 
and with the keyed construction referred to, are common. The cross- 
pieces are halved where they cross and a similar arrangement is used at the 
top, to which the top of the table is screwed. Octagonal or hexagonal 
tabourets (Fig. 699) require especial care in making the vertical bevelled 
joints where the sides meet. First bevel the edges, then saw the pattern 
required to form the legs. Some device must be used to prevent the joints, 
and the clamps also, from slipping after the glue is applied. Blocks of 
soft pine can be glued on temporarily for the hand-screws to press against 
on the principle shown in Fig. 700. A tongue or spline is sometimes in- 

' Another method is to fit small blocks into mortises in the rails and screw these blocks 
to the under side of the table (Fig. 694), or blocks can be screwed to the inside of the rail 
(Fig. 695). Metal fastenings and L-irons are also in common use. 



Fig. 699 



256 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 




Fig. 700 



£ 



Fig. 701 





serted (Fig. 701). Where the hand-screws are to be applied to the edges 
of the legs, pieces of soft pine can be fitted to receive the pressure. Glue 
two sides at a time, and then glue these joined sections 
together. Fit and glue in corner-blocks inside wherever 
they will not show. Screw and glue blocks inside at the 
top, and screw the top on through these blocks without 
glue (Fig. 702). 

Fig- 475 shows a few simple mouldings used for the 
edges of table-tops. To 
shape the ends of table- 
legs where they project 
through or above the top, see 
page 263. 

If a table, or other four- 
legged object, does not stand 
evenly on all four legs, place 
it on a true surface, level the 
top by wedging under the legs 
until the corners of the top are equally distant from the surface on which 

the object stands. Then set the com- 
passes at a distance equal to that at which 
the end of the short- 
est leg is raised (Fig. 
703), and scribe^ 
around the other 
legs, which can then 
be cut off. See also 
page 87. 

170. Bookcases, 
Cabinets, and simi- 
lar work. A plain 
case (Fig. 704) can 
be nailed together, 
but it is more workmanlike to groove the shelves into the sides ^ (Fig. 705)* 



Fig. 703 




Fig. 704 




Fig. 705 



' In nice work, as fitting a shelf in a bookcase, do not fit the entire end of the shelf 
into a groove, but cut a tongue or wide tenon on the end of the shelf, with a shoulder at 



Appendix 



257 



or the top and bottom shelves can be grooved into the sides and those 

between be movable. The back can be fitted 

by cutting a rabbet on the back edge of each 

side for the entire length and making the shelves 

of such a width that they will not project 

beyond it (Fig. 707). A narrow piece can be 

screwed on the back of the case to show above 

the upper shelf. The back can then be 

screwed in place. The back for little cases, 

such as hanging wall-cabinets, 

etc., can often be best made 

of a single board, but this 

should only be done for small 

work as the expansion and 

contraction of a wide board, 

or of several glued together, 
is liable to injure the case (see page 211), A back made of a single board 
should be firmly screwed at the middle of the top and bottom, but a little 
play allowed at the sides. A back can be made of 
yi" matched boards or sheathing, or halved (Fig. 
708) for a plain case of this kind. Another way is 
to make the back of upright pieces alternately 
thicker and thinner, giving a panelled effect (Fig. 

709). Do not force 




Fig. 706 




Fig. 707 




Fig 708 



C?: 



:5~3!: 



-fe_if a 



Fig. 709 



the back tightly into place but allow a lit- 
tle room for expansion and contraction 
sideways, and use screws of only medium- 
sized wire, passing through holes in the 
back large enough to allow a little play — 
except for the pieces at each side, which 
can be screwed in place as firmly as pos- 
sible. (See also page 211.) 

Bookcases of the type shown in Fig. 
710 involve no new principles. The 
shelves should be grooved as just de- 



each side and the front ec 
Dadoing, page 159. 
17 



je, to fit into a corresponding groove, as in Fig. 706. See 



258 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 



scribed. Corner brackets under the lower shelf will stiffen an open case. 
In low open cases, like this, a thin plank (i/^" to 1%" thick) is often best 
for the upright sides. 





Fig. 710 

A common form of case is shown in Fig. 711. The upright sides can well 
be of plank thickness, but y^" stock will do for a small case. The rest can 
be of y^" stock. It is best to groove the sides into the top, and the bottom 
shelf into the sides. The other shelves can be mov- 
able if desired. The baseboard can be bevelled or 
moulded on the top edge, and mitred at the corners. 
The piece in front can be glued and also the mitred 
joints. Fine nails can also be used but the side pieces 
should be glued at the front ends only. A moulding, 
mitred at the corners, can be nailed around under the 
top board as shown, glued in front and at the corners 
only. The sides of such cases are often made of y&" 
stock and the front edge faced with a strip glued on, 
from 1%" to 2" wide, according to the size of the case 
(Fig. 712). This gives a heavier appearance to the 
sides, and the shelves can fit behind the facing strip. 
Reeds can be worked on the facing strip (Fig. 712). For 
moulding at the edge of the top, it is the most workmanlike way to work all 
mouldings on the solid wood, using as thick wood for the top as may be 




Fig. 712 



Appendix 



259 





Fig. 714 




required. This avoids putting on moulding across the grain of the piece 
to which it is fastened, which is not a scientific way. A common way is to 
make the top of two 
thicknesses and to 
mould the edges be- 
fore the two are glued 
together. 

The best way to 
make the back for 
nice work is to make 
a panelled frame, Fig. 713 

which is screwed firm- 
ly in place as one piece (Fig. 713), the size and arrangement of the panels 
depending upon the size and shape of the back. (See also page 257.) 

A good way to put bookcases, cabi- 
nets, etc., together is with projecting 
tenons fastened with keys or pins. 
(Fig. 714. See also page 

150.) 

These few principles to be 
observed in making book- 
cases apply also to many 
cabinets, music-cases, mag- 
azine-cases, and the like. 
171. Shelves. — Where the wood is expensive it is common to make 
shelves of white wood or pine, and to face the front edge with a strip of the 
same wood as the rest of the case. Removable shelves can rest on cleats at 
the ends, but this does not always look well, and the position of the shelves 
cannot be readily changed. Movable metal supports are cheap. Screw- 
eyes can be screwed into the sides under the shelves (Fig. 715), and recesses 
cut on the under side of the shelves to fit the screw-eyes. Fig. 716 shows a 
common way. The vertical strips can be laid on edge side by side, clamped 
together, and the notches laid out and cut as if there were but one piece, but 
it is quicker to cut the notches on the side of a narrow piece of board, 
which is then sawed into the desired strips or "ratchets," with the circular- 
saw. Or holes can be bored in a strip and the strip then sawed apart 
(Fig. 717), and cleats with rounded ends used. 



W 



Fig. 715 



Fig. 716 



26o 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 



172. Drawers. — It takes a very good workman to make well-fitting and 
smoothly-running drawers, but the beginner should understand the opera- 
tion, even if he may not attain the highest degree of skill in its execution. 





Fig. 717 



Fig. 718 





^ 



Fig. 720 



The more accurately the case which holds the drawers is made, the easier 
it is to fit the drawers. In good work, a horizontal frame (Fig. 718) is fitted 
beneath each drawer for it to run on and can be grooved into the sides of 
the case like a shelf (see page 256). These frames, as well as the whole 

case, should b e 
free from wind- 
ing, and the stock 
for the drawers 
should be true. 
The front and 
sides of a drawer 
should be got out 
to fit very snugly. 
The front piece is 
nearly always 
thicker than the 
sides, back, and 
bottom. If the 
front is ^", the 
sides are usually 
about %" or W', 

but the dimensions are governed by the size of the drawer. The front of 
the drawer should be of the same kind of wood as the outside of the article, 




Fig. 719 



Fig. 721 



Appendix 



261 




Fig. 722 



but the sides, back, and bottom are often made of whitewood, pine, maple, 
etc., though sometimes the same wood is used throughout. 

The order of the process is: ist, to get out the pieces to the required 
dimensions; 2d, to make the joints for the sides, front and back; 3d, to 
cut the grooves for the bottom in the sides and 
front; 4th, to fit the parts together. The piece 
for the back is narrower than the front piece, to al- 
low for the bottom (Fig. 721), and is often cut 
off at the top also. Dovetailing (see page 154) 
is the best joint for a drawer, but is difficult for 
the beginner. The joints shown in Fig. 719 can 
be used for ordinary work. These can be quickly 
made by machinery (see Circular-saw, page 95). 
Cut the groove for the bottom on the inside of the 
front and of the sides (Fig. 720) with the plow 
or circular-saw.^ Smooth the insides of the pieces before putting the 
drawer together. When these parts are glued and put together, slip 
the bottom (previously fitted) into place. It should be got out with the 
gram running across the drawer, or parallel with the front (Fig. 721). Glue 
it at the front edge only, so that the rest may be free to swell and shrink 
without injuring the drawer. 

Be sure that the drawer is rectangular (putting in the bottom will assist 
m this) and free from winding. Test with the framing square. When put 

together and dry, carefully smooth the 
front and the sides. A little trimming 
with the plane may be required to make 
the drawer run freely, but care should 
be taken not to plane away too much. 
When there is a space at the sides of the 
drawer, small slides for the drawer to 
run between are fastened at each side 
next to the drawer at the bottom (Fig. 
722), and must be adjusted carefully to fit. 

Thin blocks or "stops" (Fig. 723) can be fastened on the under side 
of the cross-frame so that the inside of the drawer front will strike against 

' It is common to bevel the under side of the bottom at the edges to fit the groove 
(Fig. 723). Thus the groove need not be so wide as the thickness of the bottom. 




Fig- 723 



262 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 



them when pushed in as far as it should go ; or the drawer can be stopped at 
the back. It is easier to make a drawer which is narrow and long (from 






Fig. 724 



Fig. 725 



front to back) run smoothly than one which is wide across the front, but 
short from front to back. A drawer which is a trifle larger at the back 

than at the front will run best, as it will be less 
likely to bind or catch. A simple way to attach a 
drawer under a shelf, bench, or table is shown in 
Fig. 724. Bayberry tallow is excellent to rub 
on the sides of drawers. 

173. Chairs. — Many kinds of chairs are too 
hard for a beginner to undertake, unless he has 
unusual skill, particularly those forms in which the 
legs, backs, rungs, etc., are fitted at odd angles. 
A plain rectangular type (Fig. 725), does not re- 
quire more than ordinary skill. The joints should 
be mortised, glued, and pinned.^ The height of 
the seat of an ordinary chair of this kind is about 18". 

The joints of the frame of a corner-chair, as in Fig. 726, should be mor- 

' Dowelling is a common method of making the joints of cheap chairs, and of many 
which are not cheap in price, and is used in most chairs in the market because easily and 
cheaply done by machinery. It is not to be recommended, however, in most cases, for it is 
not so well calculated as mortise and tenon to withstand the severe strain to which chairs 
are subjected. Of course where rungs or other members are used of such shape that the 
ends would naturally be rounded into pins or dowels, the same method of fitting is used as 
in fitting a dowel into one of two pieces. 




Fig. 726 



Appendix 



263 



tised, except that dowels can be turned at the tops of the posts for the 
curved back and arms. The back and arms are got out in three pieces, 
on the principle of the circular work shown on 
page 244, glued, and screwed together from the 
under side. A rabbet can be cut for a seat- 
frame to be upholstered, or rush- or cane- 
seated, or covered with leather. Seats of odd 
chairs like this are often less than 18" in height. 
A plain Morris-chair (Fig. 727), simple- 
framed stools, crickets, and the like, involve 
the same principles of careful and accurate 
planning and mortising already described. If 
a chair does not stand evenly, see page 256. 
Rocking-chairs can well be avoided by the beginner, not merely because of 
the angular character of the work, but also because it calls for skill and 
experience to design a rocking-chair so that it will balance and rock properly. 

The ends of chair 




Fig. 727 




^^^ 



w 




Fig. 728 



Fig. 729 



posts and legs, table 

legs, and other square 

posts are often finished 

like flat pyramids 

Fig. 730 (Fig. 728), sometimes 

with the four faces 

curved (Fig. 729).. In each case plane first two opposite sides and then 

the other two. Sometimes the edges are simply bevelled or rounded 

(Fig. 730). 

For seats which are to be upholstered, a shallow rabbet is sometimes cut 
around the top 
rail of the seat 
o n the outside 
(Fig. 731) to re- 
ceive the cloth 
or leather cover- 
ing. Sometimes 

a frame is made, upholstered independently, and placed on a rabbet 
cut around the inside of the seat-frame or upon a ledge screwed on in- 
side (Fig. 732). Seats of leather or other material can also be fastened 



^' 




Fig. 731 



Fig. 732 



Fig. 733 



264 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 



7 I M I I 11° U 



A 
Fig. 734 




in a shallow rabbet cut as in Fig. 733.^ For rush seats, or woven leather, 
cord, or the like, round or rounded rungs should be used. A seat can be 
of wood fastened on top of the seat rails, either fitted between the legs 
(Fig- 738) or on top of them, and with the grain of the wood run- 
ning from front to back. If fitted around the legs, lay the chair 
wrong side up upon the seat, and scribe the corners to be cut out with 
knife and square. Cut out the corners and screw on from underneath up 

' Upholstering is a trade in itself. The woodworker should, however, know how to 
upholster a plain seat for a chair or the top of a box. First, in the case of a chair, stretch 
S webbing made for the pur- 

pose tightly across the frame 
and tack securely (Fig. 734) 
turning the ends under. 
Tack over this burlap (Fig. 
735). On this spread the 
curled hair or whatever ma- 
terial is used, and then a sheet 
of cotton-batting (cotton- 
wool), and cover the whole 
with cambric or other cloth, 
(Fig. 736). This prevents the 
hair working through the 
cover. To put this on evenly, stretch from the middle of one side to the middle of 
the opposite (A and B, Fig. 734), tacking over the edge. Next at the middle of the two 
other sides (C and D, Fig. 734). Then work by degrees toward the four corners, finally 
folding, and cutting off if necessary the surplus cloth at the corners. The edges, unless 
selvedged, should be turned under. The final covering is put on in 
the same way. In nailing on leather, etc., with ornamental headed 
nails, first tack the material in position with small nails and then drive 
the ornamental nails so as to cover the heads. 

Where strips of reed, or whatever 
^i^^^^^^?^^?7^^'^'?i^^®^i'^?y similar material is used, can be simply 

wound around as on a reel, a strip can 
be carried around in one direction, as 
from side to side of the s at, and then 
woven over and under the other way from the front to the back of the seat. It can 
also be wound around in two or three directions, leaving regular spaces (Fig. 737), and 
then weaving over and under until the spaces are filled. The ends can be held by driving 
in pegs. A bent needle, made of a little strip of metal with an eye in one end, is used for 
the weaving. Where the cane passes through holes, as in the common cane-seated chair, 
and is woven in various patterns pegs are driven into the holes to keep the material already 
woven taut while the weaving progresses. 



Fig. 735 



ZA 



Fig. 736 • 



Fig. 737 



Appendix 



265 




Fig. 738 



through the rails, or if the latter are quite deep, counterbore (Fig 505) 

A frame with holes bored near the inner edge, and cane-seated or covered 

with leather or other material 

(Figs. 731 and 732), can be fastened 

on in this way. All edges against 

which rushes, leather thongs, or 

cord bear should be cut slanting 

or rounded, to prevent undue 

wear. Frames for seats should 

be made with mortise and tenon 

(see page 144). 

174- A Small Building with 
"Lean-to" Roof.— Fig. 739 shows 
the construction of a small build- 
ing with "lean-to" roof— a form 
of roof suitable for small buildings 
and easy to construct. Halve 
the ends of the sills, or horizontal 
timbers at the base of the build- 




Fig- 739 






ing. Toe-nail the upright corner posts, and also the other upright mem- 
bers or studs, to the sills. The plates, or lengthways horizontal members 

at the top, can be nailed down on 
top of the posts and studs. The 
remaining pieces can be nailed 
through or toed as may be required. 
Use 3>^" and 4" nails. Level the 
sills (see page 19). Square them 
also. Applying the steel square 
is usually sufficient for a small 
structure. (See also p. 223.) Plumb 
the corner-posts (see page 19). To 
keep them in place nail on lath- 
strips. 

The roof timbers or rafters are 
easily fitted as shown. The board- 
ing on the roof must run lengthways. 
Begin to lay the roof-boards at the 




Fig. 740 



266 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 



lower side. They can overlap a little to shed the water, and can have a 
strip nailed on at the edge if desired, but flush at the top. The roof can be 
covered with shingles (see page 178), with tin or other metal, or with one of 
the numerous roofing fabrics. If desired to have the roof overlap more, the 
rafters can be made longer than shown. To have the roof boarding run 
the other way omit some of the middle rafters and run roof timbers (purlins) 
lengthways on top. Saw the ends of the boards off after they are laid, 




marking with a chalk line (see page 19), or with a straight-edge and pencil. 
Two-inch nails will do for the boarding. A very flat roof is not advisable for 
shingling. 

The sides can be boarded vertically. Matched boarding is good and can 
be painted, or rougher boarding' can be used and covered with shingles 
or clapboards. (See pages 178 and 179). 

175. The Framing of a Small One-story Building. — First get out the 

' If you need to pound the edge of matched boarding or flooring, fit to the edge a 
waste piece of the same kind and strike that (Fig. 740). 



Appendix 



267 



sills, halving the ends as shown; also the plates (the horizontal members 
at the top over the sills) and the corner posts. Then put these together 
as shown in Fig. 741, squaring and plumbing carefully and holding 



^ 




Fig. 742 



Fig- 743 



Fig. 744 



temporarily by the stay-laths shown. Fit vertical studding at each side 
of the door-space and window-spaces, allowing a little more than the actual 
widths of the door- and window-frames. Also fit horizontal pieces above 
the door-space and above and below 
the window-spaces, and anywhere re- 
quired to stiffen the frame or for 
nailing the boarding. It is well to 
nail in short corner braces with the 
ends cut at 45° where the posts meet 
the sills and plates, to stiffen the 
frame (Fig. 742). 

It is easiest to lay the floor next. 
Floor-beams can be laid on the sills as 
shown. If the building is very small, 
2" X 4" may do, but if 6' or more in 
width the floor-beams should be 6" or 
8" in depth, for a floor of moderate size. 
Place one floor-beam at each end 
next the posts, to which it can be 
nailed. The floor-beams should be 
about 18" apart or less, according to 
size and the stiffness of floor required. Toe-nail them to the sills, and after- 
wards nail to the studding where practicable. "Size" them on the under 
edge at the ends (Fig. 743) before laying, if they are not of exactly the same 




Fig. 745 



268 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 




width. Unless sized to equal width the floor will be uneven. If the floor- 
beams are more than 6' or 8' long, they should be " bridged" every six or 
eight feet (Fig. 744), to distribute the pressure upon them. 

Next lay the floor boards lengthways of the building. For all but very 
cheap buildings it is best to lay a double floor. The lower layer can be of 
cheap boards. Between the two floors lay sheathing or roofing paper. The 
best floor boards are matched not merely at the edges, but at the ends also, 

and are hollowed or "backed 
out" on the under side. Pry 
each board tightly against the 
one last laid with a chisel (Fig. 
745) b e fo r e nailing. ^ Under 
boards which are not the full 
length must be sawed so that the 
ends will be butted over the middle 
of a floor-beam, and such joints 
should be arranged to alternate 
Fig. 746 or come at different points of the 

floor. 
The upright studding can now be put in, or this can be done before 
laying the floor. Studs must be placed at each side of the door- and window- 
spaces, leaving a little more than the width of the frames to allow for ir- 
regularities and to ensure getting them plumb. If the windows are to run 
with weights, enough extra must be allowed to form the "pockets" in 
which the weights can run. The doors, window-frames, and casings can 
all be bought ready made, and it is well to have 
them on hand before setting the studding, to prevent 
mistakes. Also put heading pieces of studding across 
above the door-space and above and below the win- 
dow-spaces. Place the rest of the studding 16" apart 
(centre to centre) if the building is to be lathed and 
plastered. If it is to be unfinished inside, the studding can be arranged at 
other distances if thought best. The sides can now be boarded up. Be- 
gin at the bottom. 

If the building is quite small 2" x 4" studding will do for the roof timbers. 

' If more force is required a toggle-joint arrangement (Fig. 746), or other similar device 
can be contrive 1. 




Appendix 



269 




But if 12' or more wide, 2" y.6" is as small as should be used. To lay out 
rafters (Fig. 747): AD is the "run" of the rafter, and BD the "rise.'' 
If the height of the roof is one half the width, it is called one-half pitch; 
if one third the width, one- third pitch; if 
one fourth the width, one-quarter pitch. 
In laying out with the steel square it is 
usual to take the run as one foot and the 
rise as some number of inches, according to 
the pitch of the roof, which for one-half pitch is 
twelve, for one-third pitch is eight, for one-quarter 
pitch is six. To lay out one-third pitch, take distances 
twelve on the tongue and eight on the blade, and place the 
square as in Fig. 748, moving it along as many times as there ^^' '''^ 
are feet in one half the span. In this case four times, which gives the right 
length for a rafter for an eight-foot span, and the angles for cutting the 
ends can be marked directly by the square, the blade being at the right 
angle for the vertical or "plumb" cut, and the tongue for the horizontal 
or "foot" cut. If the half span is not an even number of feet, in moving 
the square the last time take the number of inches on the tongue instead 

of twelve. ^ Allow for one half the thick- 
ness of the ridge board (for which a 
piece of % " board on edge will do) . The 
ridge-board is often omitted. The end 
rafter and the ridge-board can 
easily be raised and nailed in 
place by two persons, being tem- 
porarily stayed by a board or 
"stay-lath" (Fig. 741). 
Ladders can be used for the construction of the upper part of a small 
building, but a staging will facilitate the work. The construction of a plain 
staging is so simple that it can be learned at a glance where any building 
operations are going on. Always use as many as two nails at each nailing 
place in a staging. Fig. 749 shows a good form of bracket to hold a staging, 





Fig. 749 



Fig. 750 



' All such problems can be figured out mathematically, or can be laid out on a small 
scale on paper or full size upon a floor, but it is much quicker to use the steel-square as 
shown. 



270 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 



easily made, and held in place by a brace (Fig, 750), or by bolting to the 

building. 

After the rafters are all in place, board the roof, beginning at the bottom. 

The roof can then be shingled (see page 178), or covered with any other 
roofing material, finishing with saddle-boards along 
the ridge. It is common to put a narrow board or 
moulding where the roof overhangs, as will be seen 
by inspecting other small structures. 

At the door-space put a threshold and door- 
frame and casing. The arrangement of these de- 
tails will be readily understood by examining them 
in almost any wooden building. Between the cas- 
ings and the boarding lay strips of sheathing pa- 
per, projecting a few inches all around, so that cold 
and dampness will not come in through the cracks 
between the casing and the clapboards or other 
outside covering. Corner-boards and water-table 
can next be put on. The top edge of the water-table 
is usually bevelled (Fig. 507), and the water-table is 
sometimes omitted. The sides can now be clap- 
boarded or shingled. It is a great protection to 
cover the walls with sheathing paper first. The 
door- and window-casings must be "flashed" (see 

page 180), and there must also be flashing where the chimney comes 

through the roof. If a pipe is used for a chimney, see Fig. 751. 
If the inside is not to be plastered 

or sheathed, the timbers of the 

frame can be planed by machine, 

in cases where appearance is an ob- 
ject. If the roof is to overhang, 

use longer rafters and cut the ends 

as in Fig. 752. Floor timbers are 

often let into gains in the sills or 

girders, and sometimes hung by 

stirrups, but for simple work [the way shown is good. Rafters can 

be braced by collar beams, — horizontal pieces of board nailed across in the 

upper part of the roof (Fig. 752). Fig. 753 shows an arrangement of 





Fig. 752 



Appendix 



271 




Fig. 753 



floor timbers for a garret, nailed to rafters and plates. Upright sheath- 
ing of matched boards is suitable for the walls of small buildings. Ver- 
tical boarding, with the cracks cover- 
ed with battens (Fig. 754), is some- 
times used. 

For stairs, take two pieces of plank 
2." X 9" or 10", and having determined 
the points for the top and bottom of 
the stairs, mark the notches with the 
steel square on a similar principle to 
that used in laying out rafters. (See 
page 269.) You can mark on a stick 
the height from the top of the lower 
floor to the top of the upper. Divide 
this distance on the stick into as many- 
parts as you wish to have steps, and 
you can use this stick as a gauge to determine the points for the notches 
for the steps. ^ After these notch-boards or string-pieces have been cut 

^ ^__^ and put in place, you can easily get out and 

^ ^ '^ nail on the "risers" or upright boards, and 

the "treads," or horizontal ones. It is best 
to have the treads not less than 9" wide when 
you can, and 10" is better, while 7^" or 8" 
will do for the risers. 

A "header" or cross-piece (Fig. 755), must 

be securely fastened between the second 

story floor-beams where they are cut off to 

make the opening at the head of the stairs. 

The same thing must be done wherever timbers 

are cut off for the chimney, allowing an air 

space to prevent the wood becoming overheated 

by the chimney. 

In a two-story building a common way to ar- 
Fig. 755 range the framing for the second floor is shown 



Fig. 754 




' To find the number of steps for a given situation, find the height, as just shown, from 
floor to floor, 102" for example. Assume for trial a satisfactory height for each step as 



272 



A Shorter Course in Woodworking 




in Fig. 756. This does very well 
for a small, cheap structure, but for 
an important or large building, the 
floor timbers should bear on beams 
which are a part of the frame (Fig. 
757). Fig. 757 shows a frame for a 
good-sized building. 

176. A Flat-bottomed Row-boat. 

— (Fig. 758). Use straight-grained 
stock, free from large knots, checks, 
or other defects. Pine is excellent, 
or cedar. First cut out the sides of 
%" stock, as is Fig. 759, cutting the 
ends at a slant to give whatever rake 
may be desired at stern and stem. 
Get out a stern-piece (Fig. 760), 
which can well be somewhat thicker 
than the boards used for the sides. 
Make a middle mould (Fig. 761) 






Fig- 757a 



7". Divide 102 by 7, which gives 14V7 for the number of steps. To make the number even, 
call it 14, and you have only to divide 102 by 14 to get the exact height of each step. 



Appendix 



273 



of the same length as the width of the boat at the widest point, and of 
the general shape shown in Fig. 761. The slant at the ends should corre- 
spond to the flare which the sides of the boat are to have. 




Fig- 758 

Cut a bow-piece or stem of the general shape shown in Fig. 762, 
taking especial care to cut the rabbets accurately. Arrangements like 
Figs. 763 and 764 are sometimes used. 




Fig. 759 

The sides are bent around the middle mould and nailed to the stern- 
piece (which will require bevelling at the edge to make a close fit) and to the 



Fig. 760 






Fig. 761 




Fig. 762 



Fig. 763 



Fig. 764 




274 A Shorter Course in Woodworking 

stem (the rabbets of which can be trimmed to fit if necessary). These 
joints should be painted with white lead before nailing. Use copper or 
galvanized iron nails. 

The lower edges of the sides must be bevelled with the plane for the 
bottom boards. The amount to plane off can be determined by laying a 

board across (Fig. 765). Get out the bottom 
^^^^^^ boards of ^" stock, with the edges carefully 
jointed, and nail carefully to the sides with 
2}i" or 2%" nails, first painting the edges of 
the sides with white lead. Get the bottom 
Fig. 765 boards out a little too long and saw off the 

ends after nailing. It is well to bore holes 
for all nails which come near edges. The edges can be fitted as accurately 
as possible, trusting to the swelling, which is siu"e to occur, to make water- 
tight joints. 

To caulk the joints, make them slightly open on the outside, run white 
lead into the cracks, and then force into them oakum, cotton-batting, wi ek- 
ing or something of the kind. Roll the material into a loose cord, unless 
already in that form, and force it into the cracks with a putty knife, or 
anything of the kind. A regular caulking iron is not necessary for a boat 
of this kind. Force the material in firmly and thoroughly, and then apply 
white lead plentifully to the joints. On the same principle wicking or strips 
of flannel can be laid in white lead along the edges of the sides before nailing 
on the bottom boards. If the boat is not very large, plain sheathing, or 
matched boards, can be used satisfactorily. 

If the middle mould will be in the way if left in place, it can be removed 
as soon as you have put in enough seats and any other braces necessary to 
keep the sides in position. Fasten wale strips along the gunwale. A strip 
can be nailed along the bottom inside or outside and clinched. Paint 
thoroughly with at least three coats. 



INDEX 



Page 

Adjustment of plane 36, 37 

Air-dried stock 205, 208 

Alcohol 192, 193 

Stains 191 

Alkanet root 191 

Ambidexterity 176 

Ammonia (for staining) 190 

Angles 221 

Bisecting 225 

Constructing equal 225, 226 

Of 45° and 135°, to construct, 10, 226 
Of 30°, 60°, 120°, and 150°, to con- 
struct 227, 228 

Of edged-tools. See Bevel, etc. 

Angle-blocks. See Corner-blocks 181 

Annual rings 201 

Anvil 88 

Arc 221 

Or circle, to strike 15, 16 

Bisecting 230 

Tangent to straight line 230 

To draw through three points 234 

To draw when centre is out of 

reach 235 

Arkansas stone 135 

Arm of chair, to mend 180, 181 

Corner chair 176 

Asphaltum 198 

Assembling furniture 251 

Astragal 165 

Auger 53 

Bit 53 

To sharpen 135 

Automatic drill-stocks 54 

Screw-drivers 69 

Awl, brad 52 

Marking-, or scratch- 9 

Back for case work 257, 259 

Background (carving) 174 

Back-mitre 164 

-Rest 115 

-Saw 27 

Baluster stock 245 



Page 

Band-saw 102-104 

Setting and filing 138 

Basil 33 

Battened sheathing 271 

Bayberry tallow 262 

Bead cutters 86 

Beading 108, 109, 165 

-Planes 43 

Beads, to turn 117 

Beam-compass 16 

Beams, floor 267, 268 

Strains 213-216 

Bearings, oiling 128 

Beeswax. See Wax. 

Bell-faced hammer 63 

Belt-lacing 127 

Belts 126, 127 

To find length of 127 

Speed of 127 

To slip on 128 

Width of 127 

Bench. See Workbench 5, 80, 81 

Carving 171 

-Hook 27, 40, 83 

-Stop 82 

-Vise 82 

Bending wood 1 62 

Bevel 10, 1 1 

To lay out with square 9 

To plane 108 

For obtaining angles 228 

Cutting with circular-saw 94 

-Edged chisels 34 

Of edged-tools 129-131, 136 

Bevelling. See Chamfering 158 

Edges (boat) 274 

Bichromate of potash 191 

Binding of saws 25, 92 

Bisecting an angle 225 

An arc and chord 230 

A straight line 221 

Bit-brace 53 

Bits 53-55 

Auger- 53 



275 



276 



Index 



Page 

Bits, centre- 53 

Dowel- 53 

Expansive- 54 

Forstner- 54 

German- 54 

Gimlet- 54 

Plane- 35 

Pod- 54 

Spoon- 54 

Twist- 54 

Twist-drill 54 

To sharpen 135 

Black stain 191 

Blind dovetailing 155 

Mortising 148 

Nailing 65 

Block-plane 39 

Blocks, corner- 76 

Board foot 2 

Measure 2 

Boards, measurement of 2 

Boarding 266, 268 

Boat, flat-bottomed row 272-274 

Toy hull 246-250 

Body plan 246 

Bolts ...67 

Bone black 191 

Bookcases 256-259 

Boring-machines no 

-Tools 52-57 

Bow-piece 273 

Bow-saw 28-30 

Box-lock, to fit 187 

Box-making 237-241 

Corner 267 

Brace and bit 55-57 

Brace, bit- 53 

Joint for Fig. 757a 

Braces 216 

Bracket-saw 30 

Bracket for staging 269 

Brackets 76 

Brad-awl 52 

Brads 67 

Bridge, lattice 217 

Strains 214-217 

Bridging of floor beams 268 

Bristle brushes 199 

Broad surfaces, planing 50, 51 

To make 156 

Brown stain 191 

Bruises, to remove 188 

Brushes 193, 199, 200 

Building (small "lean to") 265, 266 



Page 

Building (small one-story) 266, 272 

"Built up" constructions 156, 213, 245 

Bull-nosed plane 42 

Burnishers 133 

Butt-gauge 185 

Butts. See Hinge-fitting 186, 187 

"Buzz" planer 108 

Cabinet-file 77 

-Maker's bench 80, 81 

-Rasp 78 

-Work. See Furniture 250-265 

Caliper-rule 7, 21 

Calipers 21 

Testing with 115, 119 

Canoe paddle 246 

Canvas, to paint 199 

Cap (plane) 35-37 

Carborundum 135 

Card, file- 77 

Carpenter's square 9 

Carriage clamps 70 

Carved work, elementary 170-177 

Finishing 1 76 

Sandpapering 176 

Carving-tools 63, 171, 177 

Slips for 135 

Casings (door- and window-) 268 

Casters 188 

Caul 177, 178 

Caulking 274 

Centre-bit 54. i35 

Centre of circle, to find 234 

Irregular shape 229 

Square or rectangle 229 

Centres for dowelling 152 

Of lathe 112 

Centring for turning 1 13 

Chair arm, to mend 180, 181 

-Seat, height of 262, 263 

Chairs 262-265 

Levelling 256 

Chalk 19 

Chalk-line 19 

Chamfering 158 

Charring wood 211 

Chattering (plane) 44 

(Saw) 27 

Checking (ends) 208, 209 

Cherry 250 

Chest. See Box-making 237-241 

Chest-locks 187 

Chimney (opening) 271 

Chip (wooden plane) 37 



Index 



277 



Page 

Chisel 31-35 

Bevel-edged- 34 

Carving- 63 

Control of 31 

Corner- 35 

Firmer- 31 

Framing- 31 

Mortise- 34 

Paring- 34 

Sharpening 128-13 1 

Skew- .'. 35 

Socket- 34 

Straight-bent 34 

Turning- 113 

Chopping-block 88 

Chord, bisecting 230 

Chord (strains) 215, 216 

Chuck 125 

Chute-board 85 

Circle or arc, to strike 15, 16 

Circle, inscribed in triangle 232 

Inscribed in square 231 

Tangent to straight line 230 

Circular-plane 42, 43 

Circular-saw 89-102, 138 

Position of 126 

Setting and filing 138 

Speed loi 

Circular work 244, 245 

Circumference, semi-, to find 231, 232 

Clamping 72-75. 183, 184, 245 

Clamps 72-75 

Cabinet- 72, 73 

Carriage- or C-shaped 70 

Filing- 137, 138 

Clapboarding 179, 180 

Clawf oot 176 

Cleaner (for furniture) 196 

Cleating 157 

Cleats 211, 212 

Cleavage, lines of 201 

Clinching 65 

Coal-tar 211 

Cold-glue 181 

Collar-beams 270 

Collars (for wabbling circular-saw) 96 

Combination-planes 43 

Compass-saw 28 

Compasses 14, 15 

Compound curves 236 

Compression 214 

Concave curves, to turn 1 19, 120 

Cone pulley 112 

Construction, a few principles 213-217 



Page 

Construction, some types of 237-274 

Contraction, expansion and 21 1-2 13 

Control of tool 176 

Coping 164 

-Saw 28, 30 

Copper for flashing 180 

Cord ("twister") for clamping 75 

Core-box plane 231 

Coring work, to saw 105 

Coring (inside) work, saws for 28-30 

Corner-blocks 76, 181 

Corner-boards 270 

Corner-braces 257 

Corner-chisel 35 

-Irons 188 

Cornering tool 159 

Counterboring 177 

Countershaft 112, 126 

Countersink 55 

Cracking. See Checking 

Cracks, to fill 188 

Flashing. See Flashing 

Creosote 211 

Crickets 263 

Cross-cutting saw and its use 22-24 

Cross-cutting (circular-saw) 94 

Crossed belts 127 

Cross-grained surface, smoothing 42 

Cross-strain 214-216 

Crushing strain (compression) 214-216 

Cup-shakes 211 

Cups, to turn 121 

Curled-hair for rubbing 195 

Curved forms 244, 245 

Built up 245 

Curves, compound 236 

Curves, cutting with band-saw 102 

Curves, drawing irregular 21 

Symmetrical 237 

Saws for cutting 27-30 

Curves, to cut with chisel 32, 33 

Cut nails (shingling) 179 

Cuts and bruises xiii 

Cutter- heads (circular-saw) 99 

Cutting-edges, 31, 32, 136. See Sharpening 

Cutting-gauge 14 

Cylinder, to cut off 118 

To square 9 

To find opposite points 231 

To turn I13-I15 

(With steps), to turn 115 

Dadoing 159, 165 

With circular-saw 97 



278 



Index 



Page 
Dado-plane 159 

Daniels' planer 107 

Dead centre 112 

Finish (painting) 198 

Decay and preservation 210 

Deck-beams 249 

Denatured alcohol 193 

Dents, to remove 188 

Diagonal members 213-215 

Diameter of circle 231 

Diameter of curved object 21 

Driven pulley 127 

Driving pulley 127 

Dimensions, rough 2 

Squaring stock to 51. 52 

(Working-drawings) 218 

Disk, to turn 122 

Dividers 219 

Dividing line into equal parts 224, 225 

Dog-house. See Kennel 243, 244 

Dogs 68 

Door- and window-spaces 267, 268 

Door-frame 270 

Locks 187 

Door- and panel-making 167, 170 

Door, to hinge, or "hang" 186 

Doors and casings 268 

Double-cut file ^^ 

Double-ironed planes 36 

" Double-surf acer " planer 106 

Double wedges 140 

Dovetailed cleats 157 

Dovetailing 154, 155 

Dowel-bit 53 

DoweUing 152, 153, 262 

Dowel-plate 153 

Dowels 152, 153 

Dowel sharpener 153 

Dragon's blood 191 

Draw-boring 149 

Draw-dogs 68 

Drawer dovetailing 154 

Drawer-locks 187 

Drawers 260 

Draw-filing scraper 133 

Drawing-board 219 

Instruments 219 

Problems 217-237 

Drawings, working 216-221 

Drawknife 59 

To sharpen 133 

Drawshave. See Drawknife. 

Drill-stock 54 

Metal for 54 



Page 

Drill, twist- 54 

Dryer 198 

Drying wood 205-208 

Dry rot 211 

Dull finish (painting) 198 

Duplicate parts, to lay out 4 

Ebonizing 191 

Edge, joint- 51 

Edge of tools 31.32 

Grooved with spline 156 

Edges, planing and jointing 45-50, 239 

Matched 156 

Rabbeted 1 56 

Edge-tools, principle 136 

Eight-sided stick 160 

Elasticity 208 

Elevations 217 

ElHpse 235, 236 

Emery wheel 128 

End cleating 157 

Elevation 217, 218, 220 

-Grain, planing 39, 40 

Joints 155 

Of post or leg 263 

-Pressure 163 

-Wood, gluing 1 84 

Equal angles, to construct 225, 226 

Parts, dividing line into 224, 225 

Equilateral triangle 227, 229 

Escutcheons 188 

Estimating i 

Expansion and contraction, 184, 185, 211- 

213, 238 

Expansive-bit 54 

Extension or slide rule j 

Eye, training of 18 

Face (of plane) 35 

-Plate 121 

-Surface 4 

Working- 51 

Facing edges of case work 258 

Feather-edge 129, 130, 131 

Felt for rubbing 194 

Fence pickets 178 

Figured grain 203, 204 

File 76, 77 

-Card 77 

Rounding with 162 

Filing saws 136-138 

Fillers 191, 192 

Fillet 165 

Finger and pencil, gauging 13 

Finishing 188-200 



Index 



279 



Page 

Finishing, cabinet-work 251, 252 

Carved- work 176 

Turning 125, 126 

Firmer-chisel ., 31, 34 

Fish-plates 156 

Fitting together (cabinet-work) 251 

Flashing 180, 270 

Flat-faced hammer 63 

Flexible ruler 21 

Floor-beams 267, 268, 272 

-Boards, laying 268 

-Timbers 270, 271, 272 

-Strains 214, 215 

Foci of ellipse 235 

Foot, board- 2 

"Foot" cut 267 

Foot-power machines 1 00-110 

Square- 2 

Fore plane 38 

Forms for bending 163 

Forstner-bit 54 

Forty-five degrees 226 

Frame, pinned and braced 272 

Frames, picture and mirror 252, 253 

Window and door, spaces for. .267, 268 
Framing (small one-story building) . 266- 272 

(Second story) 271, 272 

(Pinned and braced) 272 

-Chisel 31.34 

-Square 9 

-Square (various uses), 225, 226, 228, 
229, 233, 234 

French curves 236 

PoHshing 195, 196 

Front-elevation 217 

Furniture 250-265 

Polish or cleaner 196 

Repairing 180, 181 

Gain, to pare out 33 

Gauge 1 1-14 

Butt- 186 

For turning Ii8 

For special work 13, 14 

Setting 12 

Stop-, for boring 57 

Gauging for hinges 185, 186 

Geometrical problems 221-237 

German-bit 54 

Getting out stock i 

Gimlet 53 

-Bit 54 

Glass, measuring for 253 

Setting 200 



Page 

Glass, to wedge plate 253 

Glazier's points 200 

Glazing. 200 

Glue and its use 181-185 

-Brush 182 

-Joint, dowelling 153 

(Jointing) 47-50, 100, 108 

-Pot 182 

Rubbed joint 72 

Testing 182 

Gouge. 58 

Carving 177 

Sharpening 131, 132 

Turning 113 

Grain alcohol 192 

Of wood 201, 203, 204, 212 

Green wood 201 

Grinding. See Sharpening. 

Grindstone 128, 135 

Grooving 108, 159 

Saws and cutters 96, 97 

Guards for circular-saw 93 

Guides for planing 46 

Hack-saw 88 

Hair-cloth for rubbing 194 

Half -bead, to turn 117 

Half -breadth plan 246 

-Round file 77 

Halved splice 1 56 

Halving 140, 141 

Hammer (and nailing) .-. . .63-67 

Veneering 178 

Handle, tool, to turn 119 

Hand-screws 70, 71, 181 

Hanging a door 186 

Hardware fittings 185 

Hard wood 206 

Hatchet 57 

Header 268, 271 

Head-stock 112 

Heart 212 

-Shakes 211 

-Wood 201 , 209 

Hexagon, inscribed in circle 232 

To construct 234 

Hexagonal stick, to square 9 

Tabourets 255, 256 

Hinge-fitting 185, 186 

Hinges (loose-pin) 187 

Strap- 186 

T- 186 

Hinging a door 186 

Holes or cracks, to fill 188, 189, 194 



28o 



Index 



Page 

Hollow and round planes 43 

Hollows and rounds, to turn 119, 120 

Hook, screw and eye 188 

Horizontal moulding-machine 108, 109 

Horses 82, 242, 243 

Hot glue 181 

Housing 148 

Hull of toy or model boat 246-250 

Hypothenuse, to find 229 

I-beam 216 

India stones 135 

Inlaying 178 

Inside calipers 21 

-Gouge 58 

-Mitre 164 

Work 28-30, 105 

Instruments, drawing 219 

Iron, plane- 35-37 

To paint 198 

Irregular moulding-machine 109 

Isometric projection or perspective..2i9, 221 
Ivory black 191 

Jack-board 83, 84 

Mitre- 85 

Jack-plane 38 

Japan 198 

Jig-saw 104, 105, 138 

Joint-edge 4, 51 

Grooved, with spline 156 

Joint, for brace Fig. 757a 

Halved 140, 141 

Mitred 142, 143 

Scarfed 156 

Jointer 39 

Or "buzz " planer 108 

Jointing 47-50, 100, 108 

Face of wooden plane 37 

Sawteeth 137, 138 

Joints, end- 155 

Glue, planing for 47-50 

"Sprung," for gluing 50 

Etc., painting 197 

Keen edge, testing 131 

Kennel 243, 244 

Kerfing 164 

Keyed tenons 150, 151 

Keyhole-saw 28, 29 

Keys, to make 150, 151 

Kiln-drying 206-208 

Knife 9, 58, 132, 133, 139 

Knives, planer- 106, 107 



Page 

Knots, sawing through 26 

To "kill" with shellac 197 

Lacing of belts 127 

Lag-screw 69 

Lap- or drawer-dovetailing 154 

Lathe 1 10-126 

Position for 126 

Lath, stay 269 

Strips 265 

Lattice bridge 217 

Lattice bridge work 178 

Laying out work i, 3 

Tools for 6 

(Mortising) 151, 152 

(Framing panels) 168, 169 

Lead for flashing 180 

Red 198 

White, and oil 198 

"Lean-to," 265, 266 

Leather seats 263, 264 

Ledger-board 272 

Leg for table, curved 245 

Length of belt, to find 127 

Level 19, 20 

Levelling tables, chairs, etc 87, 256 

Lime-water 190 

Lines, drawing 220 

Linseed oil (for darkening) 190 

Lips, cutting 53 

Liquid fillers 192 

Paints 198 

L-irons 188 

List of materials, lumber, etc 3 

Live centre 112 

Locks 187 

Log, methods of sawing 202-205 

Logwood 191 

Long jointer 39 

Loose pulleys 126 

Lumber, care of 207, 209, 210 

Measurement 2 

Order 3 

Seasoning 205-208 

M (lumber measurement) 2 

Machines, placing 126 

Woodworking 88-128 

Mahogany 250 

Stain 191 

Mallet 76 

Maple 251 

Marking-awl 9 

Lines 17 



Index 



281 



Page 

Marking, rough 19 

Spaces (turning) 115, 116 

(Straight-edge) 220 

Mason's square 223 

Masts and spars 161 

Matched-boards 156, 165, 268 

NaiUng 65 

To strike 108, 266 

Matching-planes 43 

Maydole hammer 63 

Measurements 3, 6, 7 

Of lumber 2 

Measurements with two sticks 7 

For picture or glass 253 

Medullary rays 201 

Mirror-frames 252, 253 

Plates 188 

Mirrors, to wedge 253 

Mitre, back- or inside- 164 

-Box 85, 86 

-Dovetailing 155 

Jack-board 85 

Shooting-board 85 

-Square 10 

To draw 226 

Mitred-joint, to nail 142 

Mitring 142, 143 

Model boat (hull) 246-250 

Modelling or shaping (carving) 175, 176 

Model, strength of 217 

Morris-chair 263 

Mortise and tenon 144, 252, 254, 262 

Open 151 

Pinned 148, 149 

Mortise-chisel 34 

Gauge 14, 145 

Locks 187 

To cut 145, 146, 147 

Mortising-machines no 

Motors 126 

Moulding or shaping (carving). ... 175, 176 

Moulding-machines 108, 109 

Nailing around panel 170 

Strips of 108, 109 

Mouldings 165 

For case work 258, 259 

Roughing out 99 

Moulds for bending 163 

Mouth of plane 35, 36 

Nailing 63-67 

Mitred-joint 142 

Nails 67 

For shingling 179 



Page 

Nails, ornamental 264 

To withdraw 67 

Nail-set 68 

Narrow surfaces, planing 45-50 

Needle (weaving) 264 

Nibs, scoring 53 

Nippers, cutting 88 

Notch-boards 271 

Oak 250 

Quartered 204 

Oblique projection 219, 221 

Oblong, to draw 230 

Octagon (in circle) 231 

(In square) 233 

Octagonal stick, to mark 9 

To make 108, 160 

Octagonal tabourets 255, 256 

Ogee 165 

Oil (for darkening) 190 

(For oil stones) 136 

Oiling bearings 128 

Oil stains 191 

Oil stones 130, 131, 132, 135 

Open mortise and tenon 151 

Orange shellac 192 

Outlining carving 172, 173 

Outside calipers 21 

Gouge 58 

Pad for polishing 195 

Paddle 246 

Painting 196-199 

Panel gauge 14 

Panelling and doormaking 167-170 

Parallel lines, to draw 223, 224 

Projections 219, 221 

Paring, 140. See also Chisel. 

-Chisel 34 

Parting- tool (carving) 63, 172 

(Turning) 116 

Sharpening 177 

Paste fillers 192 

Pencil 10, 219, 220 

Gauging with rule and 13 

Marks, to remove 17 

Sharpening 10 

Pentagon (in circle) 232 

To construct 233 

Perpendicular, to erect 222, 223 

Perspective, isometric 219, 221 

Pickets 178 

Picture and mirror frames 252, 253 

Picture, measurements for 253 



282 



Index 



Page 

Pincers 88 

Pine, white 250 

Pinned mortise and tenon. 148, 149, 150, 151 

Pins 149 

Pitch 211 

Of roof 269 

Sawteeth . . _. 24 

Placing of machines 126 

Plan 217, 218, 220 

Plane 35-52 

Beading- 43 

-Bit 35 

Block- 39 

Bull-nosed 42 

Circular- 42. 43 

Combination- 43 

Core-box 231 

Double-ironed 36 

Fore- 38 

Hollow and round 43 

-Iron 35- 36, 37 

-Iron cap 35 

Jack- 38 

Jointer 39 

Long jointer 39 

Matching- 43 

Plough 43 

Rabbet- 42 

Router 43 

Scraper- 62 

Sharpening 128-131 

Smoothing 39 

Toothed- 41. 42 

Trying- 38 

Universal- 43 

Wooden, adjustment of 37 

Wooden, to hold 46 

Planer 106 

Jointer, or "buzz" 108 

-Knives 106, 107, 135 

-Marks 45. I07. 108 

Planing 43-51. 209 

Broad surfaces 50, 51 

Edges 45-50,'239 

Traversing 50, 51 

Planks 2 

Plaster of Paris 189 

Plate-glass, to wedge 253 

Plates 265, 266, 267, 272 

Pliers 88 

Plough 43. 159 

Plugs, to fill holes, etc 189 

Plumb i9r 20 

" Plumb " cut 269 



Page 

Pockets for window weights 268 

Pod-bit 54 

Points, glazier's 200 

Sawteeth 24 

Polishing, French .... 195, 196 

Polygon (in circle) 232, 233 

Pony planer 108 

Posts and legs, ends of 263 

Potash, bichromate of 191 

Power-saws, setting and filing 138 

Preservation of wood 210 

Process, the, in woodworking i 

Processes for preserving wood 211 

Projection, isometric 219, 221 

Oblique or parallel 219, 221 

Protractor 1 1 , 226 

Pulleys, setting up 126 

And belts 126 

Pumice 194, 195 

Punch. See Nail-set 68 

Purlins 266 

Putting together, (cabinet-work) 251 

Putty 197, 200 

-Knife 200 

Quartered oak 204 

" Quarter "-sawing 204, 205 

Quick-action vise 82 

Rabbet, colored black 253 

-Plane 42 

For seats 263, 264 

To cut with circular-saw. . . .95, 97, 98 

Rabbeted joint 156 

Rabbeting 108, 159 

Radial drills 54 

Sawing 204 

Rafters, to lay out 268, 269 

Rags, oily 5 

Rails 168 

Rake, sawteeth 24 

Rasp 78 

Ratchet-brace 53 

Ratchets for shelves 259 

Raw linseed oil (painting) 198 

Rays, medullary 201 

Reamers 55 

Rear elevation 217, 218, 220 

Rectangle, to draw 230 

To find centre 229 

Red lead 198 

Reed scrapers 86 

Reeding 108, 109 

Reeds 165 



Index 



283 



Page 

Refinishing old work 196 

Relishing 148 

Removing paint from hands 199 

Repairing furniture 180, 181 

Resinous matter, to "kill" 197 

Ribs, stock for 163 

Ridge-board 269 

Rift-stock 161, 205 

Right angle 222, 223, 231 

Rings, annual 201 

Ripping-saw 25-27, 138 

"Rise" of rafters 269 

Risers 271 

Rivets 67 

Rocking-chairs 263 

Roof -boards 265, 266 

Roof -boards "Lean-to" 265 

Strains 214-217 

-Timbers 268, 269 

Rosettes, to turn 121 

Rot, wet and dry 211 

Rotten-stone 195 

Rough dimensions 2 

Roughing out carving 175 

Round stick, to make 160, 161 

To saw 161 

To square 161 

Router 43, 159 

Row-boat 272-274 

Rubbed glue-joint 72 

Rubber-headed mallet 76 

Rubbing-down 194, 195 

Rule 6, 7, 219 

Extension or slide 7 

And pencil, gauging 13 

Ruler, flexible 21 

For marking 220 

"Run" of rafters 269 

Saddle-boards 179 

Sandpaper 78-80 

Blocks 78 

Splitting 80, 195 

Sandpapering carving 176 

-Machines no 

Rounded surfaces 161 

Shellac 194 

Turned work 119, 120, 121 

Sapwood 201 , 209 

Saw 21-31 

Back- 27 

Band- 102-104, 138 

Bow- 28-30 

Bracket- 30 



Page 

Saw, circular- 89-102, 138 

-Clamp 137, 138 

Compass- 28 

Coping- 28, 30 

Cross-cutting 22-24 

-Filing. ._ 136-138 

For cutting curves 27-30 

Jig- 104, 105, 138 

Keyhole- 28-29 

Ripping- 25 

-Set.. 137 

Splitting- or ripping- 25-27 

Swing- loi 

Turning- 28-30 

Teeth, rake or pitch 24 

Sawing inlaying 178 

Of log. 201-205 

Round stick 161 

To fit (end-joints. ) 155 

Scale. See Rule. 

(Working-drawings) 218 

Scarfed joint 156 

Scarfing or Splaying 155 

Scraper 61 , 62 

-Plane 62 

To sharpen 133, 134 

Scraping-machines 109 

Old work 196 

Tools 122 

Scratch-awl 9 

Screw-cutting 126 

-Driver 68, 69 

-Hooks 188 

-Pocket 254 

Screws 69 

Hand- 70, 71 

Scribing with compasses 16 

Scroll-saw. See Jig-saw 104, 105 

Seasoned wood 205-208 

Seasoning 205-208 

Tests for 207-208 

Seats 263, 264 

Height 262, 263 

Covering 264 

Secret dovetailing, nailing, mortising, etc. 
See Dovetailing, Nailing, Mortising. 

Section 218 

Selection of stock 208, 209 

Semi-circular hollow, testing 231 

Semi-circumference, to find 231 

Set, nail- 68 

Sawteeth 21, 25, 137, 138 

Setting nails 68 

Shafting, setting up 126 



284 



Index 



Page 

Shakes 211 

Sharpening pencils 10 

Tools 128 

Sharpness, testing 131 

Shavings and dust (polishing) 121 

Shearing stroke 31, 61 

Shears 88 

Sheathing 271 

-Paper 270 

Sheer-plan 246 

Shellac 192-196 

As filler 192 

For holes and cracks 189 

Shelves 256-259 

Shingle-nails 1 79 

Shingles 179 

Shingling 178, 179 

Shooting-board 83, 84 

Mitre- 85 

Shop 5 

Shrinkage 201-207, 211, 213 

Lengthways 201 

Side elevation 217, 218, 220 

Siding 180 

Sighting surfaces and edges 18 

Sills 265, 266, 267 

Silver-grain 203, 204 

Similar parts, laying out 4 

Single-cut file "]"] 

Single-ironed plane 36 

"Single surfacer " planer 106 

" Sizing " dowels 153 

Floor-beams 267, 268 

Sketch or picture 219 

Skew-chisel 35, 113, 177 

Slanting cut (gouge) 58 

Stroke 31, 33 

Sled-making 241, 242 

Slicing-stroke 31 

Slides for drawers 261 

Slipping on a belt 128 

Slips ._ 132, 135, 177 

"Sliver" nailing 66 

Smoking wood 207 

Smoothing-plane 39 

Soaking wood 162, 163, 206, 207 

Socket-chisels 34 

Soft wood 206 

Sole (of plane) 35 

Spars and masts 161 

Speed of belts 127 

Circular-saws loi 

Lathe 112, 113 

Pulleys 126 



Page 

Spirit-level 19 

Splaying or scarfing, bevelled 155 

SpHce, halved 155 

Splicing 156, 214 

Spline 21, 255 

Split and wedged dowels 152 

Split or rift stock 205 

Splitting-gauge 14 

Sand paper 194 

-Saw 25-27 

With circular-saw 9i~93 

Wood 1 40 

Spokeshave 59 

Spoon-bit 54 

"Sprung" joints for gluing 50 

Spur-set (for nails) 68 

Square 8, 9 

Square foot 2 

(In circle) 231 

Mason's 223 

Members (turning) 120 

Mitre- 10 

Steel (various problems) 225, 226 

228, 229, 233, 234, 269 

To describe 230 

To find centre 229 

Squaring a round stick 161 

Squaring stock to dimensions 51, 52 

Staff-bead 165 

Staggering 65 

Staging 269 

Staining 189-191 

Stairs 271 

Stands. See Tables. 

Star-shakes 211 

Stay-laths 267, 269 

Steam-chest 162 

vSteaming wood 162, 207 

Steel-square 9 

(Various problems). See Square, Sted. 

Steel-wool 80, 199 

Steps, number of 271, 272 

Stern-piece 272 

Sticking stock 207 

Stiles 168 

Stock, air-dried 205-208 

Bit- 53 

Care of 207-209, 210 

Getting out I 

Selection of 208, 209 

Stools 263 

Stop, bench- 82 

-Chamfer 158 

-Gauge for boring 57 



Index 



285 



Page 

Stop, for circular-saw 94, 95 

Stops, for drawers 261 

Straight-bent chisel 34 

Straight-edge 16-18, 220 

Strap for bending 163 

Strap-hinges 186 

Strength of materials 213-217 

String-pieces 271 

Strop 136 

Stropping 131 

Studding 268, 272 

Surface, cross-grained 42 

Planing broad 50, 51 

Swaged sawteeth 138 

Swelling and shrinking. See Expansion and 

contraction 2 1 1-2 13 

Swing saws loi 

Symmetrical curves 237 

Table, height 254 

Leg, curved 245 

To level 87, 256 

Top, to fasten 254, 255 

Tables 253-256 

Tabourets 255 

Tacks 67 

Thumb- 219 

Tail-stock 113 

-Vise 82 

Tannic acid 210 

Taper, to cut (circular saw) 99 

To plane 108 

Tar, coal- and wood- 211 

Teeth, saw- 25 

Compass-saw 29 

Ripping-saw 27 

Templates 125, 248 

Templets. See Templates. 

Tenon. See Mortise and tenon 144 

Tenon, to cut (circular saw) 100 

To wedge 149, 150 

Enlarging 181 

Tenoning-machines no 

Tension 214 

Testing surfaces and edges 18 

T-hinges 186 

Three points, arc through 234 

Threshold 270 

Throat of plane 35, 36 

Thumb-tacks 219 

Tight and loose pulleys 126 

Timbers, floor or roof 214-216 

Tin for flashing 180 



Page 

"Toe " nailing 64 

Tonguing 108 

Tonguing and grooving (flashing) 180 

Tool handle, to turn 119 

Tools, arrangement of 5 

Care of 5 

Control of 176 

Edge of 3i> 32 

Edge, principle 136 

For carving 171, 177 

For laying out and testing 6 

For turning 113, 121 

Toothed plane 41, 42, 50 

Knife 109 

Toothing veneers 177 

Torsion 214 

Toughness 208, 209 

Toy boat (hull) 246-250 

Trammel 16, 235 

Transverse strain 214-216 

Traversing 39. 50. 5i 

Treads 271 

T-rest 112 

Treenails 149 

Trestles 82, 242, 243 

Triangle, equilateral 227 

Triangle (in circle) 232 

Triangle, to draw 229 

Triangles, use of . . . . 219-224, 226, 227-230 

Trimmers 61 

Trimming. See Paring 140 

Tripoli 195 

Trisecting right angle 229 

True surface, to determine 18 

Truing grindstone 135 

Oilstone 135 

Surfaces 165, 166 

Trusses 214-217 

Try-square 8 

Trying-plane 38 

T-square, use of, 219, 220, 222, 223, 224, 
226, 230 

Turkey stones 135 

Turning 1 10-126 

-Chisel 113 

Finishing 125, 126 

-Gouge 113 

-Saw 28-30 

Turpentine 198 

Stains 191 

Twist-bit 54 

-Drill 54 

"Twister" 252 

Types of construction 237-274 



286 



Index 



Page 

Undercutting in carving 175 

End-joints 155 

Shoulders 151 

Unit of lumber measurement 2 

Universal planes 43 

Upholstering 263-264 

"V-" (or parting) tool 63, 135, 172 

Varnish, etc 192-196 

Stains '. . 190 

Vessels 200 

Varnishing, 195. See also Shellacking. 

Veining tool 63, 177 

Veneering 177 

Veneers 177 

Gluing 184 

Vise, bench- 82 

For metal 88 

"Wabbling" circular-saw 96 

Warped board, to true 165, 166 

Warping of boards 167 

Warping, twisting, etc., obviated. .212, 213 

Washita stones 135 

Water-stains 191 

Table 179, 270 

Wax (finishing) 196 

(Filling holes, etc.,) 194 

Weather drying. See Air-dried stock. 

Webbing 264 

Wedge, principle (edged-tools) 136 

Wedged dowels 152 

Tenons 149-151 

Wedges 139, 140, 150, 151, 253 

Wet rot 211 

White lead and oil 198 



Page 
White, pine 250 

Shellac 193 

White wood 250 

Whittling 139 

Wide surfaces, to make 156 

Planing 50, 51 

Width of belt 127 

Winding 251 

Sticks 86, 87 

(Bending) 163 

Winding surface 18 

Testing for 87 

Window frames 268 

And door-spaces 267, 268 

Wing compasses 15 

Wire-edge 129-131 

-Nails 67, 1 79 

Withdrawing nails 67 

Witness-marks 145 

Wood, 201-213. See also Lumber. 

Wood alcohol 192, 193 

Wooden plane, adjustment 37 

Holding 46 

Wood turning 1 10-126 

Woodworking-machines 88-128 

Work, laying out i 

Work-bench 5, 80, 81 

Working-drawings 218-221 

Working-face and edge 4> 51 

Workshop 5 

Worm 53 

Woven seats 264 

Wrench 88 

Zinc for flashing 180 

Paints 198 



Jl Selection from the 
Catalogue of 

G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS 



Complete Catalogue sent 
on application 



Excellent Books for Boys 

The United States Naval Academy 

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Wood-Working for 
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A Manual for Amateurs 
By Charles G. Wheeler 

With over yoo Illustrations. 8vo.y pp. 562. $2.^0 

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G. P. Putnam's Sons 

New York London 



«AY 31 1911 



One copy del. to Cat. Div. 
MAY 31 >9n 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 




